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Book ■ D l<o . 



MUCK MANUAL, 



FOR 



FARMERS 



BV SAXSJJEJ* Ii. jyJLStA. 






*^ It is usual to help the ground with muck, and likewise to 
recomfort with muck, put to the roots 5 but to water it with 
muck-water, which is like to be more forcible, is not prac- 
tised." — Bacon. 



SECOND EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS, 






LOWELL: \^/v«. 

BIXBY AND WHITING. ^^^LUISS 
1843, 



Entered according to Act of Congresi?, in the year 1842, by 
Samuel L. Dana, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court 
of the District of Massachusetts^ 









Vr. SCHOVLER, PRINTSR. 



TO THE 
CITIZENS OF LOWELL, 

THESE PAGES, THE PITH OF EIGHT LECTURES ON THE 
CHEMISTRY OF SOIL AND MANURE, 

DELIVERED BY THEIR REQUEST, 

ARE RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED 

BY THE AUTHOR. 
Lowell, Jan. 1, 1842. 



PREFACE to THE SECOND EDITION. 



The dedication prefixed to this volume, show* its origin 
and object. By an accidental correspondence with Pro- 
fessor Hitchcock, the Geological Surveyor of Massachu- 
setts, the Author unexpectedly found himself placed 
before the public, as an agricultural chemist. He had no 
intention of pursuing inquiries relating to agriculture, 
other than those arising from his researches, on the action 
of cow dung in calico dyeing. Attached as chemist, to 
the largest establishment of that art in our country, — daily, 
almost hourly employed in duties connected with it, he 
carried forward inquiries bearing upon practical farming, 
in answer only, to the many questions asked him by vari- 
ous persons, especially by Professor Hitchcock, and Mr. 
Colman, the Agricultural Commissioner of Massachusetts. 
Their published remarks induced some of the most active 
and intelligent of his fellow citizens to request of him a 
course of lectures on Agriculture, in the winter of 1839 — 
40. Perfectly unexpected as was this request, it was ac- 
ceded to with great diffidence. Whatever ideas the 
Author may have had on this subject, they assumed no 
systematic shape till this application, and then the lectures 
were prepared as they were weekly delivered. The 
Author's agricultural reading had been very limited, and 
that confined chiefly to the chemistry of farming. 



IV PREFACE. 

Perhaps this was no serious loss to his hearers, as the 
lectures were expected to embody chiefly, the Author's 
peculiar views. This circumstance is alluded to, only to 
explain the reasons why so few references are made, by 
name to others. The statements were made from mem- 
ory, from general impressions, called up during the act of 
preparing the notes for the lectures. Repeatedly urged, 
the Author reluctantly contented to their publication. 
Throwing off all the dress of a lecturer, and omitting the 
many details and illustrations, befitting the lecture room, 
the manuscript notes were thrown into paragraphs. — 
While the main drift of the whole was preserved, that the 
volume might not exceed a readable size, it was conden- 
sed, perhaps "even to a fault." The amount of this con- 
densation, may appear from the fact, that nearly one- 
third of the whole course, has here been compressed into 
about thirty pages. In preparing the notes for the press, 
the Author often found it impossible to put his finger upon 
the passages of all the writers, whose opinions, he may 
have introduced. References to names have been gener- 
ally omitted, except where the freshness of the results, 
entitled the authors to the humble tribute which such 
mention could confer. It is hoped that no injustice has 
been done, by omitting the name of those, whose ideas 
are embodied in these pages ; ideas which have been so 
long before the world, that they have become almost 
common property. 

The remarks relating to the geographical distribution of 
plants, are drawn up from a paper by De Candolle, pub- 
lished in one of the English journals, from the Biblio- 
theque universelle de Geneva. In the chapter on the 
physical properties of soil, the Author has derived val- 
uable assistance from a paper by Professor Schubler, 
of Tubingen, published in the journal of the Royal Ag- 
ricultural Society of England. 



PREFACE. V 

Some of the principles of Agricultural chemistry laid 
down by the Author in this volume, especially the 1st, 2d 
and 3d, have been thought to be too broad by some per- 
sons, especially by a writer in the American Journal of 
Science, for whose opinion is felt all that profound respect, 
which exalted science and candor command. Upon a 
careful review of these principles, it seems to the Author 
that they are true as general expressions of facts. They 
may not be more limited and guarded than they already 
are, without destroying their force. Less limited than 
they are would remove them farther from truth. It was 
hoped before a second edition should be called for, that 
the analysis undertaken by the writer, of the soil of pine 
barrens, to ascertain its quantity of alkali, would have 
been finished. The first edition of the following work 
having been wholly exhausted within six months from its 
publication, and large orders remaining unsupplied, anew 
edition goes to press, with fewer additions and improve- 
ments than the Author intended. It may be observed that 
this edition is enlarged, it is hoped, enriched, by several 
pages of new matter. Among the principal additions are 
several articles on manures, and a sketch of the cele- 
brated Mulder's researches on geine, which will be found 
in the appendix to the fourth chapter. The whole has 
been carefully revised ; a few unimportant errors have 
been discovered and corrected ; a fuller table of contents, 
and a copious index — the last, prepared by the kindness 
of the Author's ingenious young friend, Mr. Samuel 
Webber Jr., are added. 

The author would here publicly express his thanks to 
the editors of the various scientific and literary journals, 
who have inserted notices of his work, in their various 
publications. He feels under great obligations to the ed- 
itors of the different agricultural newspapers, for the favor- 
able opinion, they have, as far as the Author knows, uni- 



VI PREFACE. 

versally expressed of this volume. Coining from all parts 
of the country, unsolicited, and from writers personally 
unknown to the author, he deems their opinion the best 
index of the value placed upon his humble labors by the 
agricultural community, S. L. D. 

Lowell, Oct. 1842- 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 
Geology of Soil, :::::::: : page II 
Objects of agricultural chemistry; objects and nature of 
agricultural geology ; definition of the terms, primitive 
and secondary 5 rocks have one common origin ; the 
terms primary and secondary soil are useless ; rocks 
and soil are to be classed by their origin and distribu- 
tion ; in their origin all rocks are igneous or by fire ; 
chemical constitution of all rocks similar ; there is one 
rock and one soil ; chemical constitution of rocks does 
not affect the vegetation over them ; geographical dis- 
tribution of plants ; the laws which govern it; rocks do 
not form the soil which covers them ; general uniform- 
ity of chemical composition of soil. 

CHAPTER 11. 
Chemical Constitution of Rocks and Soils, : 24 
Different views taken of rocks by geologists, mineralogists 
and chemists ; farmer takes only the chemical view; 
nature of agricultural mineralogy ; farmer must under- 
stand the results of the analysis of minerals ; division 
of the twelve substances forming rocks, into silicates, 
urets, salts — explanation of these terms; chemistry of 
soil ; chemical notation ; the three laws of affinity ex- 
plained ; constitution of simple minerals composing 
rocks; rocks are masses of silicates ; the whole is di- 
vided into three classes only. 

CHAPTER ni. 

PliOPERTIES AND ChE»WCAL ACTION OF THE ELEMENTS 

OF Soil, ::::,::::::::: 38 
The common properties of the bases of silicates ; charac- 
ters of the class urets ; particular description of sili- 
con, or the base of flinty earth ; composition of granite 



Vlll COiSTENTS. 

and the soil which it forms; quantity of alkalies in 
barren plains ; all soil contains lime, alkali, &c., — 
enough for any crop grown on it; action of air and 
moisture upon soil, produces salts ; origin of sulphate 
and phosphate of lime in soil ; all soil contains these 
substances. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Of the Organic Constituents of Soil, : : : : 50 
Number of substances forming plants; what the organic 
constituents of soil are ; they are formed by the action 
of the living plant; plants draw their inorganic constit- 
uents ready formed from the soil ; two great divisions 
of the elements of soil into the organic and inorganic ; 
soil composed of either division dlone, barren ; of the 
laws of isomi)rphism, which affect agriculture ; of geine, 
its nature, properties and relations ; it is divided into 
two classes, that which contains, and that which docs 
not contain nitrogen ; geine is essential to agriculture ;, 
of the chemical history of geine, and recent researches 
of Mulder on this subject. 

CHAPTER V. 

Of the mutual action of the organic and inor- 
ganic Elements of Soil, :::::::: 66 

Theoretical and practical farmers both aim at the same 
object; the action of the elements of soil to be consid- 
ered in two ways — 1st, the mutual chemical action of 
the organic and inorganic parts — 2nd, the influence of 
growing plants on this action ; of the importance of salts 
to this action ; of the action of carbonic acid and the 
carbonates upon the silicates of soil ; of the modifica- 
tion produced upon this action by the presence of life ; 
of catalysis or the action of presence, by which life 
acts; of the action of mineral manures in agriculture; 
tlieir earthy or alkaline part always acts one way; their 
acid part produces differences of action ; illustration and 
explanation of the action of salts or mineral manures; 
of the action of nitre ; of lime ; of ashes ; of the com- 
position of leached and unleached ashes. 

CHAPTER VI. 
Manure, ::::::::::::::: 114 
Manures contain all the elements which plants want — 
are divided into three classes ; choice and determina- 



CONTENTS. IX 

tion of a standard of value for manures ; nitrogen de- 
termines the value of manure ; pure cow dung the type 
of all other manures; its composition and analysis; 
yearly produce of salts and geine by one cow ; the ac- 
tion of manure referred to the joint effect of all its 
components; its action due chiefly to its ammonia; 
origin of this in dung ; of the composition and value of 
horse dung; of the composition and value of night soil; 
of hog manure ; of sheep manure ; of the quantity of 
sheep manure from 1000 sheep daily ; of the composi 
tion and effects of guano ; its actual money value to the 
farmer ; of poudrette ; of the value of the droppings of 
domestic fowls; of the composition of fish, flesh, fowl, 
gristle, skin, sinews, &c.; they all afford mineral, vege- 
table, and animal salts ; of the composition of the great 
bulk of animal bodies, fibrine, albumen, caseine ; vege- 
tables afford similar products; these similar and identi- 
cal products form proteine ; of its composition and value 
as a manure ; of the value of sinews, gristle, skin, hair, 
horns, nails, wool, and feathers; all animal and vegeta- 
ble products form two classes, that which does and that 
which does not contain nitrogen ; of the composition 
and value of bones as a manure; of fats and oils; of 
soot; of the spent ley ; of artificial spent ley ; of liquid 
animal manures; of the peculiar principle which gives 
them their value ; its analysis, composition and action ; 
of the analysis of cattle urine — its value as a manure ; 
urine of the horse, sheep, and hog ; of human urine — 
its value and composition. 

CHAPTER VTI. 
Artificial Manure and Irrigation, : : : : 160 
Of the nature, analysis and composition of peat, swamp 
muck and pond mud; what is wanting to give these 
the value of cow dung is alkali ; of the relative val- 
ue of ammonia, potash, and soda, ashes and which 
may be used for this purpose ; of the quantity in which 
these may be added to a cord of peat ; of the compost of 
peat with animal manure ; of the various substances 
used for forming artificial manure with peat, and their 
relative value ; of the principles of irrigation ; of the 
action of pure and impure water; of the composition of 
the deposites from freshets ; the nature, action, and 
value of rain and snow, in agriculture ; " snow the poor 



X CONTENTS. 

m^tn's manure," — how far this is true ; of paring and 
burning ; of turning in green and dry crops. 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Physical properties of Soil, ::::::: 190 
Great differences in soil depend upon physical not upon 
chemical properties ; physical characters of soil are de- 
pendent on its relation to heat, moisture, consistency, 
and electrical state ; in all these relations, geine acts 
the chief part ; of the quantity of water produced by 
the decomposition and waste of geine ; the amount 
evaporated per acre from this source ; the quantity 
evaporated from woodland, exceeds the amount of rain 
which falls; of the waste of geine caused by this evap- 
oration of water ; of the proportion of carbon which is 
derived from the soil, and from the air by forest trees. 



CHAPTER I. 
GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 

1. Agricultural Chemistry aims to explain all 
the actions of earth, air, and water, upon plants. It 
refers to all their chemical relations, to the geology, 
mineralogy and chemistry of soil. 

2. Agricultural geology explains the relations 
which soil bears to plants, and the manner in which 
that affects vegetation. 

3. Agricultural geology confines itself to facts. 
It digs into the earth, observes what composes that ; 
how its components act upon plants. Conversant 
only with facts, or logical deductions from these, it 
leaves to geology proper, the vast mass of observa- 
tions, supported by the highest modern science, 
which teaches the origin, mode of formation, origin 
nal condition, and successive changes which our 
globe has undergone. 

4. The terms, primitive and secondary, used by 
geologists, are almost parts of common language; 
yet, need to be explained to the farmer. 

5. Large tracts of all extensive countries are 
composed of rocks of a granite texture. This needs 
no definition. Such rocks having been observed 
to underlay all others, in the scale of rocks com- 
posing the earth's crust, were called primary. It 
was supposed that these were first formed. Out 

2 



12 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 

of the ruins of these, no matter when or how ruined, 
other rocks have been made, called secondary. 
The ruins of the primitive rocks have been trans- 
ported by water, and then gradually deposited layer 
upon layer. Under immense pressure, these layers 
of mud, sand, fine gravel, rolled stones, &c., have 
been hardened into solid rock ; forming sandstones, 
slates, or even rocks presenting the crystaline struc- 
ture, or texture of granite, by the action of heat, 
which the facts of modern geology teach, exists in 
the interior of our globe. 

6. This internal heat is supposed to be the cause 
of volcanoes, and the primitive rocks themselves, to 
have been the ejection, under circumstances un- 
known, of the melted mass of the globe ; ejections, 
similar in kind, to those of modern lava, but greater 
in degree. 

7. Intermediate between modern laya, and prim- 
itive rocks, and actually passing into either, is a 
large class of ancient volcanic rocks, called trappe- 
an ; such are basalt, trap, and highly crystalline 
porphyry. 

8. However named and classed are the rocks of 
the earth's surface, they have one common origin, 
the molten matter of the globe. Hence, having a 
common origin, their ultimate chemical constituents 
are similar. If granitic rocks have a certain chem- 
ical constitution, then sandstone, slate, &c., having 
been formed from worn out and worn down granit- 
ic rocks, have a constitution chemically like them. 

9. To the agriculturist, the terms primary and 
secondary^ are useless. Equally so are all distinc- 
tions of soil based on these terms. 

10. Soil is the loose material covering rocks, and 
often is included in that term. It is supposed to 
have been formed from decayed rocks. Both are 



GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 13 

to be classed by their origin. The origin of rocks 
refers not only to the mode of their first formation, 
but to their subsequent arrangement. The origin 
of all rocks, geology teaches, is from the molten 
matter of the globe. These have been, afterwards, 
in some cases, removed by water, and in part re- 
modified by heat (5). Referring rocks to their or- 
igin, they are divisible into two great classes. 

ist. Those formed by fire. 

2d. Those formed by water. 

11. This division relates both to the origin and 
distribution. In their origin all rocks are truly igne- 
ous or by fire. In their distribution they are aque^- 
ous or by water. This is the only division neces- 
sary to the farmer. It is the division taught and 
demanded by Agricultural Geology. 

12. The first class includes all the highly crys- 
talline rocks, granite, gneiss, sienite, greenstone, por- 
phyry ; it includes also, basalt, lava, volcanic sand. 
The products of volcanoes, whether ancient or 
modern, agricultural geology places in the same 
class, including thus all that portion which forms 
the largest part of the earth's surface. 

13. The second class includes sand, clay, gravel, 
rounded and rolled stones of all sizes, pudding- 
stone, conglomerates, sandstones, slates. When 
these various substances are examined, a large part 
of sand is found to be composed essentially of the 
ingredients of the igneous rocks. This is true also, 
of sandstone, slate, of conglomerates, of bowlders. 

14. There is a large deposit, or formation in some 
districts, composed almost wholly of one of the 
chemical constituents of the igneous rocks, united 
to air. The constituent is lime, the air is carbonic 
acid, forming by their union, carbonate of lime. 
Marble, limestone, chalk, belong to this formation. 



I 



14 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 

These are not to be ranked as original igneous pro- 
ducts, subsequently distributed by water. The lime, 
originally a part of igneous rocks, has been sepa- 
rated and combined with air, by animals or plants, 
by a living process, called secretion. The modern 
production of carbonate of lime, is still going on 
under the forms of shells and corals. Though 
belonging to neither division, the subject will be 
simplified by referring limestone to the second class 
of rocks ; but it is truly a salt, and it will be dis- 
cussed hereafter. 

15. The chemical constitution of all rocks is 
similar. If rocks are divided into two classes, the 
first composed of those usually called primary, such 
as granite, gneiss, mica slate, porphyry ; and the 
second class, composed of rocks, usually called 
trappean, as basalt, greenstone, trap, then the great 
difference in their chemical constitution is this : 

The first, or granitic class, contains about 20 
per cent, more of silex, and from 3 to 7 per cent, 
less of lime and magnesia and iron, than the second 
or trappean class. 

16. If the language of geology is borrowed, and 
rocks which present the appearance of layers, or a 
"stratified structure," are divided into two classes, 
fossiliferous and non-fossiliferous, or those which 
do, or do not contain remains of animals or plants, 
it will be found that the fossiliferous are neither 
granitic nor trappean, yet are they to be classed 
with the last, agreeing with them, in containing less 
silica, and more lime, magnesia, and alumina. 

17. The stratified non-fossiliferous rocks agree 
in chemical composition with the granitic, and the 
fossiliferous with the trappean and volcanic. 

18. The trappean and fossiliferous contain the 
most lime an-d magnesia ; the granitic and non-fos- 



GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 15 

siliferous, the most silex. The great difference in 
chemical composition, between the two classes, is 
produced by hme and magnesia, — two substances, 
which, more tlian all others, have been thought to 
influence the character of soil. 

19. The amount of this difference is about from 
4 to 7 per cent.; yet notwithstanding this, the gen- 
eral chemical constitution of all rocks approaches 
so nearly to identity, that this may be laid down as 
the first principle in agricultural chemistry, that 
there is one rock, consequently one soil. 

20. To the farmer, all soil is primary. The 
question then arises, how do rocks and soil affect 
vegetation ? As a consequence of the first propo- 
sition, it may be laid down as the second principle 
of agricultural chemistry, rocks do not affect 

THE VEGETATION WHICH COVERS THEM. 

21. This is opposed to the geological doctrine of 
the times, and may seem to be opposed to the 
statement in section 18. The difference there stat- 
ed, may be thought to produce corresponding ef- 
fects in vegetation. This would be true if rocks 
exerted any influence on soils, due to their chemi- 
cal constitution. A survey of the geographical 
distribution of plants, used for food, will show that 
the common doctrine of the chemical influence of 
rocks on vegetation, is not so well supported, as to 
be considered an established principle. It is not 
intended to deny that rocks do, by their physical 
constitution, affect vegetation. Unless it is shown 
that their physical depends upon their chemical 
constitution, the principle must be admitted as a 
general truth. 

22. The plants used for food are cultivated on 
every variety of rock foundation which the earth 
presents. Their cultivation is limited neither by 



16 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 

granitic nor trappean, by fossiliferous nor non-fossil- 
iferous rocks. Their product varies not more on 
different, than on the same geological formation. 
Every where, over every variety of rock, the culti- 
vation of the food-bearing plants, repays the labor 
of the farmer. 

23. Surveying Massachusetts, it is evident the 
grain crops are not influenced by the peculiar rock 
formations over which they are grown ; for in this 
State, with the exception of modern volcanic rocks, 
all the various formations which the earth presents, 
are found. Yet no difference in the quality and 
quantity of crops of rye, oats, barley, wheat, Indian 
corn, is found, which can be attributed to different 
geological tracts. 

24. All plants have a natural limit, a peculiar re- 
gion, in which, unaided by the human race, they 
flourish and spread spontaneously. ■ The smaller 
the limit of this natural boundary, the more difficult 
is the cultivation of the plant. Yet we find that the 
natural boundary is passed, and so plants come to 
live in an artificial region. There is a natural, and 
there is an artificial " habitat," or region ; and this 
last is either horticultural, or agricultural. The 
first is unlimited, the second is limited by the great 
external circumstances of temperature and moisture. 

25. The extreme north and south limits, which 
bound the cultivation of the food-bearing plants, are 
determined wholly by physical, physiological and 
social causes. Temperature is the great agent, 
which limits the agricultural " habitat" of the grain- 
bearing plants. 

26. The distribution of plants is governed by the 
two follov/incr laws : 

1st. The polar agricultural limits are bounded by 
lines passing through .places of equal summer heat. 



GEOLOOY OF SOIL. 17 

2d. The equatorial limits, by lines of equal winter 
heat. 

These lines are called respectively, isotheral, and 
isochimenal. They by no means coincide. They 
often cut each other at right angles, and generally, 
from about 45 degrees north latitude, — they are 
parallel neither to one another, nor to the latitude. 
They are often highly curved. 

And nov/ for the proof of these general laws. 
Beginning with barley, the grass or grain which 
has been cultivated the farthest north ; its fields are 
found in the extremity of Scotland, in the Orkneys 
and Shetland Isles, 61 degrees N.; in the Feroe Isl- 
ands, between 61 and 62 1-2 degrees N.; in Western 
Lapland, near North Cape, in latitude 70 degrees ; on 
the borders of the Vvliiie Sea, in Western Russia, 
between 67 and 68 degrees, and near to Archan- 
gel, in Eastern Russia, about 66 degrees, in Central 
Siberia, the limit of barley is between 58 and 59 
degrees N. There are no extended observations 
of the temperature of the northern portions of our 
own continent, and therefore the limit of barley in 
Northern America is left undefined. But its Euro- 
pean line wirll probably define that which will limit 
grain cultivation in America. 

Tracing a line through the points above named, 
it is the northern boundary of all the cereals, or 
grains. A liltle beyond this line is the boundary of 
the potato, and the belt between the two, is remark- 
able. It is the zone between agriculture, and fish- 
ing, and hunting, between races of men, subsisting 
on animal, and on vegetable diet, and those whose 
chief food is animal. The northern cultivation of 
barley is bounded, if its course is traced, by a very 
curved line. Is this determined by geological 
causes, or do causes purely physical erect a barrier 



18 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 

to its farther northward advance ? The answer 
will be found, in tracing the temperature of the sea- 
sons of the different places, through which the limit 
of the northern cultivation of barley passes. It 
will be evident that the line of this limit is isotheral, 
for the mean temperature, Fahrenheit, is as follows : 

Latitude. Year. Winter. Summer. 

Feroe Isles, 61—62^ +45® +39® +51® 

W. Lapland, 70 +33-8 +21-2 +46*2 

Russia, at the mouth of the White Sea, 

66—68® +32 +10-2— 8-8+46-3 

Casting the eye on this table, it is evident that the 
annual and the winter temperature have little in- 
fluence on the barley limit, and that a mean sum- 
mer temperature from 46 to 47 is the only in- 
dispensable physical condition, to tlie cultivation 
of barley. On the Atlantic islands, a mean tem- 
perature from 3 to 4 degrees higher is necessary, 
which compensates for excessive humidity. It is 
remarkable, that all the cereals have failed in Ice- 
land, though its mean temperature is above that 
necessary for barley. Nor is this owing to its ge- 
ological structure. In that, it agrees with the fer- 
tile shores of the Mediterranean. It is volcanic. 
So far a^ nitrogen, and carbonic acid, and ammonia, 
may be supposed to be evolved from the earth, and 
to contribute to the growth of grain, Iceland should 
equal fertile Italy. But such is not the fact, and it 
goes to prove that rocks affect very little the crops 
grown over them, even when the great physical 
element, temperature, is as high as is necessary. 
That grains fail in Iceland, is due to the excessively 
tempestuous rains with which that country is visit- 



GEOLOGY OF SOIL, 19 

ed. If then, the hmits of barley are defined by 
an isotheral line of 46 1-2 degrees in Europe, that 
will also limit its cultivation in America. So far as 
observation has extended, this is true, and the line 
of boundary is equally curved, and winding. If a 
similar table for the limits of wheat is constructed, 
by drawing a line through the most northern places, 
where this grain has been cultivated, the physical 
conditions, essential to its cultivation, will be found 
as follows : 

Mean temperature^ Fahrenheit^ of the 

Latitude. Year. Summer. Winter. 

Scotland, (Inverness) 58° +46-3 -t-57-3 +36-5 

Norway, (Drontheim) 64° +39-5 -h59 +23-5 

Sweden, 62° +39-5 +59 -i-23-5 

St. Petersburgh, 60-25 -f-38 +60-8 +15-6 

North latitude 64 degrees, appears then, to be 
the utmost limit of wheat. It is evident by inspec- 
tion, that this is not determined by the cold of win- 
ter ; for spring wheat would not be affected by it ; 
and even if sown in autumn, in these far northern 
regions, the seeds would be effectually preserved 
from the rigors of winter, by that thick mantle of 
snow, which becomes thicker and more lasting to- 
wards the north. The temperature of the air exerts 
no influence on seeds of plants buried under snow. 
Nor does the mean temperature of the year exert 
any effect ; it is seen ranging 9 degrees, while the 
summer temperature varies only 3 1-2 degrees. 
The summer temperature alone defines the limit of 
northern wheat cultivation, and this is an isotheral 
line of 57*4 degrees. Yet it is found, that there 
are places, where, as in Russia, the means of spring 



20 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 

and autumn, both depending on that of winter in 
part, are too low to allow wheat to be raised under 
this line of 57-4 degrees. In truth, the relation of 
climate to cultivation cannot be accurately deter- 
mined without observations on the mean tempera- 
ture of the days w^hich elapse between sowing and 
harvest, and to this point the philosophic farmer 
should direct his attention. In our country, the 
isotheral line of 57*4 degrees, starting from Labra- 
dore, 51 degrees, and passing between Hudson's 
Bay and Lakes Superior and Huron, 50 degrees, 
then turning north it approaches 58 degrees. At 
Cumberland House, 54 degrees north, Capt. Frank- 
lin found fields of barley, wheat, Indian corn. The 
line approaching the Pacific ocean turns more 
southerly to compensate the increasing humidity. 
As the limits of barley mark the boundary between 
the races of shepherds, and hunters and fishers, and 
thus presents itself in a moral view, so the limit of 
wheat becomes interesting from coinciding in some 
parts with that of fruit trees, as apples and pears, 
and also with that of the oak. The whole aspect 
not only of agriculture, but also of the orchard and 
forest changes at once on approaching^ the isothe- 
ral line of 57'4 degrees, the northern limit of wheat. 
It would be easy to extend these remarks to lye, 
still the staple food of a large part of the popula- 
tion of Europe, and to oats, little used for food for 
man out of the " land o' cakes," yet growing in 
Norway, as high as latitude 65 degrees. Each of 
these grains has a distinct isotheral line parallel to 
that of wheat and barley. Indian corn and the po- 
tato have each its isotheral line. Turning to the 
equatorial limits of the grains it will be found, that 
extreme heat arrests their cultivation. Observations 
in these regions, and experiments peformed by pro- 



GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 21 

found vegetable physiologists, confirm this state- 
ment. They have proved that the seeds of the 
food-bearing plants, even after germination has be- 
gan, can support greater degrees of drought and 
heat, than ever occur in the hottest climates. The 
grains all germinate in a soil of a temperature from 
104 to 105 degrees, and require at least from 116 
to 120 degrees to arrest this process. Barley ceas- 
es to germinate at the lowest temperature. After 
barley, follows wheat, then rye. Indian corn en- 
dures the highest heat, viz : 120 degrees, before its 
germination is arrested. The grains flourish under 
a mean annual temperature of from 77 to 80 1-2 
degrees. Defining their equatorial limits, they are 
bounded not by lines of equal summer, but equal 
winter temperature ; the reverse of their polar 
limits. Hence, climate, always determines the 
sowing season. In Bengal, wheat, barley, oats, 
are sown in October and harvested in March and 
April, while rice and maize are sown in May, to be 
harvested as with us in October. It is this line of 
equal winter temperature, or rather that of the cool- 
est months, which allows the grains to be cultivated 
in many places within the torrid zone, and the line 
of 68 to 70 degrees, which constitutes the tropical 
limits of wheat culture, varies between 20 and 23 
degrees latitude. The other grains enduring from 
5 to 7 degrees lower temperature, are found in 
higher latitudes. 

27. The wide belt of our globe, comprised with- 
in these limits, extending from 20 to 70 degrees 
north latitude, presents every variety of geological 
structure ; yet, nowhere, in all this space is the 
quantity or quality of crops affected, by the chem- 
ical nature of the underlaying rocks. 



22 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 

28. A similar principle governs the growth and 
cultivation of the grain-bearing plants on mountains. 
Their limits are found at heights, which correspond 
to the latitude, which marks the isotheral line. In 
the Swiss Alps, the grains cease growing at the fol- 
lowing heights. 

Wheat at 3400 ft. corresponding to lat. 64 deg. 
Oats " 3500 " " " 65 " 

Rye " 4600 " " " 67 " 

Barley " 4800 " " " 70 " 

This shows a beautiful correspondence between 
latitude and altitude, and leads a step farther in the 
proof of this principle, that rocks do not affect the 
vegetation which covers them. 

29. The space which has thus been surveyed, 
presents amid great diversity of rocks, a singular 
identity in chemical composition of the soil. These 
facts lead to the third principle of agricultural chem- 
istry, ROCKS HAVE NOT FORMED THE. SOIL WHICH 
COVERS THEM. 

30. Everywhere, with the exception of the tops 
of some mountains, the rocks of the globe are cov- 
ered, from a few inches, to some hundred feet in 
depth, with gravel, sand, clay, rolled stones, some- 
times alternatelv with each other, sometimes in con- 
fused heaps. The best attested, and most univer- 
sally admitted fact of geology, is, that the loose ma- 
terials of our globe have been transported, from a 
few, to many hundred miles from their original sit- 
uation. With a few exceptions, the soil which now 
covers rocks, has been derived from places distant, 
and from rocks distinct, from those on which it now 
reposes. This is peculiarly true of soil on limestone 
districts, which does not contain more lime than the 
soil reposing on granite. 

31. Transportation of soil, is a fact so well estab- 



GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 23 

lished, that it needs only to be mentioned. There 
has been a universal mingling of the loose material, 
soil, derived from worn down and mingled rocks. 

32. The same uniformity of chemical composi- 
tion characterizes soil, which characterized rocks ; 
that is, great similarity, but not identity, and it is on 
limited patches only, that soil partakes decidedly of 
the character of the underlaying rocks. 

33. The extensive analyses of soil, executed by 
the geological surveyor of Massachusetts, taken 
from every variety of rock formation, present a re- 
markable uniformity, both of chemical constitution, 
and mineralogical composition of the earthy ingre- 
dients. The same truth is presented by the analy- 
sis of soil from various parts of the globe. It is a 
conclusion, warranted by the widest e:^amination, 
that the mineral constituent of 100 parts of the soil 
of our globe, is composed of sand or silicates about 
89-28 ; salts of lime, about 00-85. — The terms salts 
and silicates, will be explained in the next chapter. 



24 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 



CHAPTER II. 

CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF ROCKS, 
AND SOIL. 

34. The geologist, the mineralogist, the chemist, 
each views rocks with a different eye. The geolo- 
gist regards the rocky mass ; the mineralogist, the 
simple minerals composing the rock ; the chemist, 
the simple elements which compose the minerals. 

35. Elements are substances which have not as 
yet been proved to be compound, as oxygen and 
hydrogen among the gases, or iron and lead among 
metals. Minerals are called simple which have 
certain definite, external, physical characters, 
though they may be composed of several elements. 
Rocks are called compound, which consist of sev- 
eral simple minerals, as granite which consists 
of quartz, felspar, an4 mica. 

36. The only point^n^f view which the farmer 
takes, is that of the chemist ; his pole-star is " fruit 
and progress ;" and his philosophy, guided by this, 
teaches the nature and mode of action of the sev- 
eral elements of minerals. Without a knowledge 
of the chemical constitution of minerals, the science 
which classifies and labels these is useless. The 
mineralogist merely names his mineral, labels it, 
and places it in his cabinet ; yet a farmer must 
know a few of these names, and talk to the miner- 
alogist in terms which he can understand. He 



CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 25 

must give to the assemblage of elements which 
composes a mineral, that name which the mineral- 
ogist bestows on the assemblage of external char- 
acters, which determines the species. 

37. The mineralogy of agriculture is no more 
than this, that the farmer be able, ever to connect 
with a certain name, a certain chemical composi- 
tion. Hearing mica (which is isinglass,) named, 
he immediately connects with that, the chemical 
properties which belong to the species, as he would 
connect with the term isinglass, the physical prop- 
erties of that substance ; such as transparency, di- 
visibility into thin plates, which are flexible and 
elastic. 

38. The amouftt of this mineralogical knowledge 
is very limited. Seven simple minerals compose 
all rocks, viz : quartz, mica, felspar, hornblende, 
talc, serpentine, carbonate of lime. Other miner- 
als are found in, but these seven compose all rocks 
termed geological formations, and which form the 
crust of the globe. 

89. The chemical constitution of rocks, the na- 
ture, properties and relations of their elements, 
prove to be of the highest value, when it is known, 
that the elements of these seven minerals are also 
the earthy parts of all plants. The farmer should 
therefore be so far a chemist, as to understand the 
results to which the analysis of minerals conducts. 

40. The number of elem.ents which chemistry 
has detected, is fifty-five. Of these, some are me- 
tallic, others are earthy, others inflammable, orVol- 
atile. Of the fifty-five elem.ents, thirteen chiefly 
compose all rocks. This includes the elements of 
water, or oxygen and hydrogen. Excluding the 
last, and retaining oxygen in its various compounds, 
there remain twelve substances only in rocks. Of 



26 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 

the earthy and metallic, eight; and of the volatile 
and combustible, four only are found in soil. 
These all are called by names so familiar, that 
their enumeration conveys at once an idea of their 
distinguishing properties. These twelve substances, 
are divided, for the convenience of the farmer, into 
three classes. First, silicates — second; urets — third, 
salts. The term urets, is here only used provis- 
ionally, and it is by no means intended to burthen 
science with a new name, an act to be deprecated, 
where an old one will as well answer. But there is 
no old term, which includes the substances, to 
which, in the present subject, reference must be 
frequently made. It is more convenient to use a 
new term defined, than to enumerate by name, 
several substances, whose action in agriculture has 
a common character, whenever this action is men- 
tioned. The word inflammable, or acidifiable com- 
bustible, the usual chemical designation might be 
used. But the farmer wants some more expressive 
term, which, while it conveys all that is intended by ^ 
the common word, shall also remind him of the ^ 
peculiar character of those compounds with metals, 
and with each other, which by common consent, 
end in " uret." This word, from the Latin, "wror," 
to be burned, seems well adapted to express the 
character of inflammability, while, by its addition 
to carbon, &c., it forms the common chemical des- 
ignation of the class when combined with metals. 

41. The substances which make up all rocks, 
may be conveniently divided into four pairs, which 
are, the alkalies, potash, soda ; the alkaline earths, 
lime, and magnesia ; the earths, silex, and alumina ; 
and the metals, iron, and manganese. These form 
the first class, or silicates. 



CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 27 

42. The silicates are formed into two divisions ; 
first, that with acid, and second, those with alkaline 
properties ; potash, soda, lime, magnesia, iron and 
manganese, have alkaline properties ; silex, acid 
properties. Silex is commonly considered an earth, 
but truly it is not ; and alumina, though generally 
acting as an alkali, sometimes acts as acid, as does 
silex or silica. 

43. The inflammables, sulphur, phosphorus, car- 
bon, and silicon, united with the bases of the alka- 
line division of the silicates, form the second class, 
or urets. 

44. The four elements (43) united to oxygen, 
form acids. These acids, united to the alkaline 
division of silicates, form the third class, or salts. 

45. The principles (41, 42, 43, 44) may be con- 
veniently tabulated. 

Twelve substances form all rocks, and they are 
divided into three classes — silicates, urets, salts. 

FIRST DIVISION. 

1st. — Silicates. Acid, Silex. 

SECOND DIVISION. 

Alkaline — Potash. 
Soda. 
Lime. 
Magnesia. 
Alumina. 
Iron. 
Manganese. 

2d. — Urets. Carbon, 1 United with the 

Sulphur, [ bases of division 2d, 

Phosphorus, {class 1st. 
Silicon, 3 

3d. — Salts. Urets, with oxygen form acids, and 
these, with division 2d, class 1st, form salts. The 



28 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 

silicates are truly salts, but are distinguished not 
only by their stony, earthy appearance, but by their 
great insolubility in water. 

Carbonate of lime is a salt, with the 'insolubility, 
and earthy character of the silicates, but in agri- 
culture it acts only as a salt, and will be treated of 
as such, and not as a rock formation. (14.) 

46. The terms, salts, urets, silicates, may need 
a further explanation. Pearlashes and vinegar are 
well known substances. One is an alkali, the other 
an acid. Pearlash, has the alkaline properties of a 
bitter, burning taste, the power of changing vege- 
table blues to green, and pinks to blues. Vinegar 
has the acid property of sour taste, of causing a 
hissing or effervescence, when poured on pearlash. 
This action ceasing, there are neither acid taste nor 
alkaline properties. The characters of the vinegar 
and pearlash have disappeared. These substances 
have united, they have formed a new substance 
called a salt. Their properties are neutralized, and 
lost in the salt. This is no longer either pearlash 
or vinegar. 

47. The fact to be observed in the action (46) is, 
that an acid and alkali mutually neutralize each 
other. The vinegar is said, in this case, in com- 
mon language, to " kill" the pearlash. So soda, 
potash, lime, magnesia, iron, and manganese would 
all be killed or neutralized by vinegar ; they would 
all be dissolved by it, and lose their distinguishing 
characters. In either case, a neutral salt would be 
formed. Such a class of salts, is termed acetates, 
being formed of alkalies, alkaline earths, or metal- 
lic oxides united with acetic acid, 

48. Silex or silica, or the earth of flints as it has 
been called, is in its pure state a perfectly white, 
insipid, tasteless powder. In various combinations 



CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 29 

of minerals, it unites with the alkaline class (42, 
45,) forming neutral salts, termed silicates, from 
the silicic acid, for silica is an acid formed by the 
uret silicon with oxygen. Thus is formed^ as in 
the case of vinegar, or acetic acid, (47) a large 
class in which are found silicates of soda, of potash, 
of lime, of magneisa, of alumina, of iron, and of 
manganese. This class forms the great bulk of all 
rocks and soil. 

49. The seven substances last mentioned (48) 
are all metals united to oxygen. They are metal- 
lic oxides. If the oxygen is removed, and replac- 
ed by carbon, sulphur, phosphorus or silicon, com- 
binations are formed, called sulphurets, carburets, 
phosphurets, siliciurets. 

50. Urets are combinations of unmetallic com- 
bustibles, with metals in their pure, or unoxidated 
state. 

51. Salts are combinations of unmetallic com- 
bustibles, with oxygen, and the metals in their rust- 
ed or oxidated state. 

52. When the combustibles, carbon, &c., (43) 
are united with oxygen, they become acid ; thus 
are formed carbonic, sulphuric, phosphoric acids. 
When these acids unite to the alkaline class, (42) 
salts are formed, called carbonates, sulphates, phos- 
phates. 

53. Hence, when a substance is named, for ex- 
ample, sulphate of lime, a definite idea of the na- 
ture of this is conveyed. It is, on the principles 
stated, at once known to be a salt, that is a sulphate, 
that is, sulphur and oxygen united to lime. So too 
phosphate of lime is seen to be a salt of lime. 

54. If the thirteen elements, which enter into 
the composition of rocks, had each an equal ten- 
dency to unite with the other ; or in other words, if 



30 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 

their affinities were mutual, then there would be as 
many different combinations as it would be possible 
to form with thirteen different substances. If these 
combined in all proportions, then the possible num- 
ber of combinations, would be infinite. 

55. This can never be. Affinity is not equally 
powerful. There is election or choice among the 
particles of inanimate matter. When the Creator 
impressed this property upon matter. He also limit- 
ed its combinations. He assigned to each element 
power to combine with other elements, only in fixed, 
definite, invariable proportions. He gave to each 
its form, weight, and measure. And thus were 
hmited, the number of combinations, and the pro- 
portions fixed, in which these combinations should 
ever, from the dawning, to the end of time, occur. 
The Genius of modern chemistry, has taught, that 
all bodies combine, only by infinitely small parti- 
cles. Holding her balance over invisible elements, 
she has taught, that each can be weighed. 

It is the relative, not the absolute weight, which 
chemistry determines. The mode may be thus il- 
lustrated : Take 9 lbs. of water, pass its steam over 
a known weight of pure iron turnings, heated red 
hot in an earthern tube. No steam escapes from 
the tube, only air which may be inflamed and 
burned. It is hydrogen gas, one of the constituents 
of water. That liquid has been decomposed. 
What has become of its oxygen ? It has united 
with, and oxidated the iron. What proportion of 
the 9 lbs. of water did it form ? 8-9ths. If the 
iron is weighed, it will be found heavier in propor- 
tion of 8 lbs. for every 9 lbs. of water evaporated. 
Whatever is the proportion of water used, 8-9ths 
are oxygen. Deducting from the 9 lbs. of water, 
8 oxygen, the balance 1 is hydrogen. These are 



CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 31 

respectively the weights of their combining pro- 
portions. Chemical theory supposes combination 
occurs, only by the ultimate, indivisible particles or 
atoms of matter. Hence, the combining number, 
is the relative weight of these atoms, referred to 
some one as unity. In these pages, hydrogen is 
considered as 1, or unity. As the atoms may be 
thus expressed by numbers, it is customary in re- 
ferring to chemical compounds, to speak only of 
the number of atoms, in which each element enters 
into their composition. The modern system of 
chemical notation, substitutes for the name of the 
elements its first, or two first letters, and writes 
after it the number of atoms, existing in any com- 
pound, as the poicers of roots, are expressed arith- 
metically by exponents. Where only single atoms 
combine, their exponents are omitted. Thus, H 
is hydrogen, O is oxygen ; then water is H O, that 
is, one atom each of hydrogen and oxygen. C is 
carbon, O oxygen ; then C O^ is carbonic acid, 
that is, 1 carbon and 2 of oxygen. The combining 
number of carbon is 6, and of oxygen 8, then 1 
carbon =6, and 2 oxygen (8 X 2) ^16. Then the 
atomic number of carbonic acid is 22, (64-16=22.) 
One little conversant with chemistry is apt to con- 
found the combining number with the number of 
atoms, especially when the first is called " atomic 
number." A distinction is to be here remembered, 
the atomic number is one thing, the number of 
atoms another. When it is said, that water is com- 
posed of 8 parts of oxygen to 1 part of hydro- 
gen, by weight, an ultimate fact only is expressed. 
When it is said that water is composed of an atom 
of oxygen united to an atom of hydrogen, we ex- 
press a theoretical opinion. The difhculty lies, in 
understanding how water can be both a combina- 



32 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 

tion of 1 to 1, and of 1 to 8 ; that 9 of water can 
yet be only composed of 1 to 1. This discrepancy 
vanishes, where the distinction is remembered, be- 
tween the combining or atomic number, and the 
number of atoms. Water is an example, where 
single atoms are united. But cases continually oc- 
cur where the combining number of one body unites 
to more than one combining proportion of another. 
In this case, as the atoms are indivisible, combina- 
tion can occur only, by twice, thrice, &c., the 
quantity of that of the first compound ; for instance, 
1 carbon may be combined with 1 oxygen, form- 
ing oxide of carbon, or with 2 of oxygen, and form 
carbonic acid. There is, and can be no interme- 
diate step. Having determined the combining 
atomic number of oxygen, that of all other bodies, 
may be found by determining how much of each is 
necessary exactly to unite with 8 of oxygen. For 
instance, the iron used in the experiment of decom- 
posing water, increases in weight ; if it is all equal- 
ly oxidated, it is found to increase 8 lbs. for every 
28 lbs. of iron used. If therefore, 28 lbs. of iron 
are used, and 9 lbs. of water, the iron may be 
wholly oxidated by the 8 lbs. of oxygen of the wa- 
ter. Deducting this from the total weight of the 
oxide of iron, 36 lbs. the balance is the combining 
or atomic weight of iron. The sum of 8 -[-28=36 
is therefore the atomic weight of oxide of iron. 
The atomic weight of all compounds is the sum of 
the atomic weight of their constituents. The num- 
ber of atoms in any compound, whose proportional 
constituents by weight are given, is found by divid- 
ing each by its respective atomic weight. For in- 
stance, the composition of carbonic acid above, 
gives in 22 parts, 6 of carbon, and 16 of oxygen. 
Each divided by its atomic weight, gives 1 carbon, 



CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 33 

/ 

2 of oxygen, =22 of carbonic acid. So in a com- 
pound of several elements, having their proportions 
per cent, given ; each divided by its atomic num- 
ber, gives the relative proportion of the atoms. 
These reduced to simplest terms, and affixed to the 
letters or symbols of the elements, constitute what 
is called the chemical formula of this compound. 

Three laws discovered by multiplied observation, 
confirmed by repeated experiments, govern all 
chemical science. These laws are : 

1st. Bodies combine only in definite proportion. 

2d. " " " multiple proportion. 

3d. " " " equivalent proportion. 

These are the laws of chemical combination. 
The atomic theory attempts to, and does account 
for them. Once admit the principle, that bodies 
combine only by indivisible atoms ; these laws fol- 
low as consequences. If bodies only unite by 
atoms, atom to atom, their composition must be 
definite. If a body unites an atom to two or more 
of another, then as atoms are indivisible, the second 
or other added portion, must be a multiple of the 
-first, by a w^hole number. When bodies unite in 
proportions which imply half atoms, it is because 
union has occurred between two atoms of one, and 
three atoms of another, as iron may vmite with ox- 
ygen so as to be seemingly a compound of 1 iron 
to 1 1-2 oxygen. Truly this is a compound of 2 
iron, to 3 oxygen. Again, if bodies unite only by 
atoms, the atom of one may be replaced by that of 
another ; or, which is the same thing, the combin- 
ing proportion of one may replace the combining 
proportion of another, for they are equivalent to 
each other. One body may be thus successively 
united to others, in doses which represent their 
atomic weights. 



34 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 

56. Calculating on this fixed principle, that the 
combining weight of any substance, is the quantity- 
necessary to unite with 8 of oxygen, it is found, that 
the proportions in which the elements of silicates 
combine, are 

8 oxygen, 8 silicon =16 silica, 

8 " 10 aluminum =18 alumina, 

8 " 20 calcium =28 lime, 

8 " 12 magnesium =^20 magnesia, 

8 " 40 potassium =48 potash, 

8 " 24 sodium =32 soda, 

8 " 28 iron =36 oxide of iron, 

8 " 28 manganese =36 oxide of manganese 

When any of these oxidated substances unite to 
an acid, it is only in these proportions. The num- 
bers are equivalents — that is, 48 of potash are equal 
in saturating power, to 32 of soda, or 28 of lime. 
All equivalents, entering into the composition of 
soil, contain the same quantity of oxygen. Hence, 
if from each of the above numbers in the third col- 
umn, 8, the constant quantity, is deducted, the re- 
mainder represents the equivalent of the respective 
pure metals, which chemists represent by the ter- 
mination in ?/m, or ium ; and hence are formed, 
potassium, sodium, &c. 

57. The equivalent of sulphur is 16, adding 3 
oxygen =24 parts, sulphuric acid is formed. 

Of phosphorus is 12, adding 2 oxygen =16 parts, 
phosphoric acid is formed. 

Hence, the equivalents of these acids are 40, 28, 
numbers produced, by adding the proportions of 
oxygen, to the respective bodies. These acids 
combine, in their above equivalent proportions, with 
the bases of silicates, forming neutral salts, or with 
two or more proportions of acid form super-salts, or 



CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 35 

with a larger portion of base, form sub-salts, and 
thus form fixed and invariable compounds. Sul- 
phate of lime, is therefore in proportion of 28 of 
lime, to 40 of acid. Carbonate of lime, 28 to 22. 
Phosphate of lime, 28 to 28, or neutral phosphate, 
or with a larger proportion of lime, the phosphate 
of lime of bones, or bone earth, so called ; and the 
equivalent of each of these salts, is the number 
produced, by adding that of the lime, to that of the 
acid. 

58. If sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, silicon, are 
added to the metallic base of silicates, (45) the 
combination is a uret — the combination can take 
place only in the equivalent proportions. It is thus 
evident, that soil, consisting of silicates, urets, and 
salts, is a fixed, unvarying, chemical combination 
of these substances, though in proportions, somewhat 
varied by local causes, yet presenting, in the mass, 
a great identity of composition. When the subject 
of the composition of the vegetable portion of soil, 
is discussed, the value of a slight knowledge of 
chemical notation, and of combining proportions 
will be manifest. It is not to be neglected, howev- 
er unconnected it may seem with practical farming. 
The doctrine of chemical equivalents is important 
to the farmer, even if he pursues it no farther than 
to understand and remember the combining pro- 
portions of a few substances, known to him only 
by name ; such are the common acids, oil of vitriol, 
aquafortis, spirits of salt, or sulphuric, nitric, and 
muriatic acids ; the usual alkalies, ammonia, potash, 
soda, lime ; acids and bases, w hich combine only 
in their equivalents. It is sometimes remarked, in 
agricultural experiments, with different salts, that 
equal quantities, if correct comparative trials are to 
be made, should be used. The doctrine of equiv- 



36 



CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 



alents, teaches not an equal, but an equivalent por- 
tion — that is, 28 of lime are equal to 48 of pure 
potash. It may assist the memory here, and fur- 
nish a good " rule of thumb," to recollect, that the 
three alkalies, ammonia, soda, potash, are to each 
other, as 17 : 32 : 48, or as 1 : 2 : 3, nearly. 
When the subject of manures is considered, the 
doctrine of equivalents will be found important, in 
determining their relative value. Though the 
numbers here used, are those of some chemists of 
high authority, they are not all universally admit- 
ted. They have the convenience of being small 
whole numbers. They are readily retained in the 
memory, and simplify the subject, by freeing the 
calculation from multiplication and division of 
equivalent numbers. They are easily apprehend- 
ed, and for all practical agricultural purposes, cor- 
rect. 

59. Viewed in this light, rocks are masses of sil- 
icates. The simple minerals composing rocks are 
truly only silicates in fixed proportions. The sim- 
ple minerals are quartz, felspar, mica, hornblende, 
talc, serpentine. Their composition is presented 
in the following 

TABLE OF CONSTITUTION OF SIMPLE MINERALS. 



Felspar 

Mica, grey 

" brown . . . . 
Hornblende, — in- 
cluding trap rocks 

Talc 

Serpentine 





a 




c 

II 


1 


6675 


17-50 


1-25 


12-00 


.... 


50-82 


21-33 


.... 


9-86 




4006 


22-40 


.... 


4-50 




45-69 


1218 


13-83 




1879 


5C-2 






water 


33-2 


4307 


0-25 


0-50 


12 75 


4037 



a g ^ 

''^ - 1^ 
B S S 

■75 
908 
1-79 

7-32 

46 
1 11 



CHEBIISTRY OF SOIL. 37 

In each, the silex acts as an acid. This is not 
only the most constant, but the most abundant in- 
gredient of rocks. Next is alumina. The average 
quantity of these elements in the most important 
rocks, is silica 62'79, alumina 25" 15 percent. 

60. In each simple mineral, the alkaline bases 
(45) being combined with silica, a compound, or 
silicate is formed. In this case, the few simple 
minerals forming rocks, may be arranged in three 
classes, and it Vv'ill be perceived, that notwithstand- 
ing their great variety of external appearance, their 
ultimate chemical composition resolves itself into 
classes of double, or simple silicates, in which sili- 
cate of alumina is united with potash, or lime, or 
with magnesia, forming thus, three classes only of 
simple minerals which compose rocks and soil. 

1st. Silicate of alumina and potash forms felspar 
and mica. 

2d. Silicates of alumina and lime with magnesia 
form hornblende. 

3d. Silicate of magnesia forms serpentine and 
talc ; and silica almost pure, is quartz. 

61. The iron and manganese in the table, (59) 
are regarded as accidental mixtures of silicates of 
these metals. Silicate of soda is often present in 
place of potash, and this constitutes an extensive 
variety of the felspar family. 

It will be observed, by the chemical reader, that 
truly eleven elements, excluding those of water, 
are found in soil. The division into twelve sub- 
stances, including oxygen, is more consonant with 
popular ideas, and is adopted ; though by this mode, 
silicon occupies a double position. 



38 PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 



CHAPTER III. 

PROPERTIES, AND CHEMICAL ACTION 
OF THE ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 

62. The bases of the silicates, have common 
properties, which are : 

1st. AlkaUne. Whatever may be our idea of 
the effect of an alkaU, as exhibited by potash or 
soda, the same in kind, but in degree less, is exhib- 
ited by lime, magnesia, and alumina. Placing 
potash as the type of alkaline power, the same pow- 
er, in a decreasing order is found in lime, magne- 
sia, and alumina. 

2d. They are, most of them, soluble in water. 
Potash stands here also first, and the solubility de- 
creases in lime, magnesia, and totally disappears in 
alumina. This may have some connection with 
the fact, that widely diffused as it is in all soil, it is 
very seldom found in plants in large quantity. 

3d. They exhibit great affinity for carbonic acid. 
The order of affinity is potash, soda, lime, magne- 
sia ; alumina, if it possesses it at all, exhibits it only 
feebly. The alkalies form soluble, and the alkaline 
earths, and alumina insoluble compounds with car- 
bonic acid. 

4th. They have all great affinity for water, com- 
bining with it, and forming what are called hy- 
drates. Potash parts not with this chemically com- 



PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 39 

bined water, by any heat which has been produced ; 
lime and magnesia give up their water readily, at a 
red heat: alumina requires for this purpose, a full 
white heat. This is the only case, where alumina 
stands next to potash. 

5th. They are all fusible, in the order of potash, 
lime, magnesia, alumina. 

6th. They have already been described as defi- 
nite combinations of metals, and oxygen (56). The 
same law governs their combinations with water. 
Such compounds are termed hydrates, from '-'-udor^'''* 
water. Water is a compound of eight parts of ox- 
ygen, and one part of hydrogen, forming one part 
of water, whose equivalent is 9. Taking the num- 
ber representing the base, (56) or rather the basic 
oxide, the equivalents of the hydrates are obtained 
by adding to each, 1 part =9 of water. Thus — 

Potash, 48 united with 9 water, forms 57 caustic potash. 
Soda, 32 " 9 " *' 41 " soda. 

Lime, 28 " 9 " " 37 " slacked lime 

Magnesia,20 " 9 " " 29 " magnesia. 

63. The same law pervades all these various 
combinations. There are strong resemblances in 
the alkaline family, which show their relation, yet 
each is marked with its individual peculiarities. 
Alumina stands alone, and seems a natural link 
connecting the silicates with the urets. 

64. The gradual passage of the characters of 
the metallic elements of the silicates, into the un- 
metallic of the urets is observed. The first, show 
alkaline powers by combining with oxygen. Ex- 
hibited in the highest degree by potash, and lowest 
in alumina, which shows both alkaline and acid 
properties. By the last, it is allied to urets, silicon, 
sulphur, phosphorus, carbon. The three last are 
so well known, that they need only to be mentioned. 



40 PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 

65. The characters of the class urets, are as fol- 
lows : 

1st. They all combine with the pure metallic 
base of the alkaline division of silicates, (46) and 
form siliciurets, phosphurets, carburets, sulphurets. 
Thus are formed carburet of iron, or plumbago, 
sulphuret of iron, or iron pyrites, sulphuret of potas- 
sium, or liver of sulphur. 

2d. The urets chemically combine with each 
other. Thus are formed sulphuret of carbon, and 
sulphuret of silicon. 

3d. The urets all form acids, by combining witli 
oxygen. Thus are formed sulphuric, carbonic, 
phosphoric, silicic acids. (53.) 

66. While the metals, combine with oxygen only 
in one proportion, to form alkalies, producing it al- 
ways, for each, of one uniform strength, the urets 
combine wdth different proportions, and form acids 
of different strength. The rule followed in nam- 
ing the acids, is, tirst, that each is called after the 
substance forming it, the uret having ous added to 
it to designate the weaker, and ic, to designate the 
stronger acid ; thus. 

Sulphur 16-i-2 oxygen =16 is sulphurous acid. 
" 16-|-3 " 24 is sulphuric acid. 

So are formed phosphorous and phosphoric acids. 
Silicon forms but one acid, the silicic. It is the 
only member of the class urets, which requires •» 
detailed notice of its properties. 

67. Silicon, the base of the earth usually called 
silex or silica, forms, next to oxygen, the largest 
part of all rocks and soil. It has been already 
noticed, (64) how the earthy character, gradually 
increased from potash to alumina ; and how this 
last, connected itself with the urets, and in the first 
member of this series, the earthy character appears 



PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 41 

fully developed. It is the earth of flints, it is pure 
rock crystal, it is common quartz, agate, and cal- 
cedony, and cornelian. All these are silicon, acid- 
ified by oxygen, hence called silicic acid. It is 
this which forms with potash, the hard coat of the 
polishing rush; the outer covering of the stalks of 
grasses. Wheat, rye, oats, barley, owe their sup- 
port to this covering of silica. It cases the bamboo, 
and rattan with an armor of flint, from which may 
be struck sparks. Entering into the composition of 
all soil, and hard and unyielding as it appears, 
forming not only the solid rock, but tlie delicate 
flower, w^hich that supports ; forming combinations 
with the metals of soil whose gradual decomposi- 
tion is the birth of fertility, silicon demands a detail 
of its properties, commensurate with the high func- 
tions it performs. 

68. Silicon, in the purest state, yet obtained, is 
a dull, brown powder, soiling the fingers. It dis- 
solves in fluoric acid, and in caustic potash. Heat- 
ed in air or oxygen gas, it burns vividly, and is 
partly converted into silica. Heated in a closed 
crucible, it shrinks very much, but does not vapor- 
ize. Heat has altered all its properties. It has be- 
come a deep chocolate color. It sinks in oil of 
vitriol, one of the heaviest of fluids ; it will dissolve 
in no acid, except a mixture of nitric and fluoric ; 
caustic alkali has no action on it, nor will it burn, 
ift the intensest flame of air or oxygen gas. No 
other simple substance is so changed by heat. The 
only substance exhibiting analogous properties, is 
the uret, carbon. 

Silicon burns in vapor of sulphur, and forms sul- 
phuret of silicon. This easily dissolves in water, 
sulphuretted hydrogen escapes, and silica remains 



43 PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 

in solution. These are facts of the highest import- 
ance in agriculture. 

69. Whether heated or not, silicon is oxidated 
when heated with dry potash, and converted into 
silicic acid. In its pure state, this is a rough, gritty, 
tasteless powder. When heated, it runs like red- 
hot ashes, and the lightest puff blows it away. It 
is not melted in the strongest heat of a wind fur- 
nace. Silicic acid exists in two states, soluble, or 
insoluble in water. It is perfectly insoluble, after 
having been heated red-hot. Sulphuret of silicon, 
as has been noticed (68) dissolves in water, and 
gives silica, in solution. If this is evaporated, a 

• jelly-like, sizy mass is obtained, which may be 
again dissolved in water. Acid, added to the solu- 
tion, when evaporating, renders silica insoluble. 
Alkalies, boiled with insoluble silica, render it sol- 
uble, no change occurring in the alkali. These 
singular changes, are due probably, to a new ar- 
rangement of the particles of silica, produced by 
that power called catalysis^ or the action of pres- 
ence, that is by the presence of a third body, tak- 
ing no part itself, in the action, but simply influenc- 
ing the changes which occur. 

70. Soluble silica exists in some minerals, and 
is produced, when a silicate is melted with an alka- 
li, and dissolved in dilute acid. It is in conse- 
quence of this ready solubility of silica, that a small 
quantity is contained in all natural waters ; associ- 
ated with alkaline carbonates in mineral springs, it 
is often an abundant product. 

71. The general properties, M-hich silicic acid 
exhibits in its combinations, are these : 

1st. All its compounds, with excess of alkali, are 
caustic, and soluble in water. Those with an ex- 
cess of silica are mild, and insoluble. Glass is an 



PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 43 

example of the last, and so are the rocks. Green 
bottle glass, is but a fused rock, a mixture of sili- 
cates of potash, soda, alumina, lime, magnesia, and 
iron. These are the silicates which have been al- 
ready enumerated, (60) as composing rocks ; and 
the amount, and origin of these several elements of 
soil, can now be conveniently understood. This is 
practical ground, and shows the value of chemical 
analysis of rocks. Whatever opinion respecting 
their origin, is adopted, and whether or not, granite 
is supposed to have produced the soil above it, or 
that it is only overlaid by granite drift, it is evident, 
from the table (59) that all granite rocks contain 
lime and alkali. These will be in proportion to the 
mica and felspar, for granite (35) is composed of 
these and quartz. 

72. The composition of granite, composed of 
two-fifths quartz, two-fifths felspar, and one-fifth 
mica, is, in every 100 parts. 

Silex, 74-84. 

Alumina, 12-80. 

Potash, 7-48. 

Magnesia, '99. 

Lime, -37. 

Oxide of Iron, 1-93. 

Oxide of Manganese, -12. 

In every 100 lbs. of granite, 7 1-2 lbs. of potash, 
and 3-8 lb. of lime. Differ, as opinions may, about 
the how, and the why, of the operation of lime, and 
alkali, it is evident, that unexhausted and exhaust- 
less stores of these substances are already in barren 
pine plains. 

73. •Let it be supposed, that these are formed of 
the drift of granite, composed as stated, (72) and 
the amount per acre of lime and alkali, taking the 
soil only six inches deep, would be as follows. The 

3 



44 ALKALIES IN SOIL. 

cubic foot of such soil weighs about 90 lbs. or at six 
inches deep, 45 lbs. The acre at this depth, con- 
tains 21780 cubic feet, which will afford 3626 lbs. 
of lime, and 73311 lbs. of potash, or nearly a ton 
and a half of lime, and thirty-six tons of potash. 

74. The lime in such a soil, would be enough to 
supply that contained in a crop of rye, at 20 bush- 
els per acre, for 7400 years ; for at twenty bushels 
per acre, and at 50 pounds per bushel, each acre 
would afford 1000 pounds of grain, which contain 
nearly 1-2 lb. of lime, or "049, (SchrcBder,) divid- 
ing 3626 by this, the quotient 7400 is the number 
of years the lime would supply the grain. Wheat 
will not differ much from rye, and if the time is 
diminished, by the amount of lime contained, in the 
straw, it will be seen, that the actual amount of 
lime and potash, in what is called poor soil, will 
hardly begin to diminish at the end of a long lease, 
cropping every year, 30 bushels of wheat. Allow- 
ing thus, for example, the proportion of straw which 
such a crop would afford, to be about 5000 pounds, 
and this is not far from the truth ; the straw gives 
0*044 of its weight of ashes, or 220 lbs. of which, 
one-fifth is soluble in water, and consists of one- 
half of that dissolved, of potash. The spent ashes, 
or that part not soluble in water, contains 5*80 per 
cent, of lime. On these data, an acre of wheat 
straw, or 2 1-2 tons will give 220 lbs. of ashes, 
containing 22 lbs. of potash, and 10 lbs. of lime. 
The potash will last at this rate for the straw, three 
thousand years ! It will be hereafter shown, that 
when the lime fails, the crop will not. 

75. Were similar calculations extended J;o soil 
supposed to be formed of any other rock, the 
amount of lime and alkali, would still be seen to be 
almost inexhaustible. And whether rocks be sup^ 



ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 45 

posed or not, to form the soil over them, it may be 
established, as the fourth leading principle of agri- 
cultural chemistry, all soil contains enough of 

LIME, ALKALI, AND OTHER INORGANIC ELEMENTS, 
FOR ANY CROP GROWN ON IT. 

76. These elements do not exist in soil, free ; 
they exist as silicates, urets, or salt's, compounds 
regulated by the unbending laws of affinity, and 
fixed, as are the laws of gravitation. The decom- 
pounding of these combinations, or the gradual de- 
cay of rocks and soil, takes place also by similar 
laws. Gradually acted upon by the carbonic acid 
of the air, the agency of growing plants, the action 
of various salts, formed by urets, in atmospheric 
exposure, the silicates yield to new affinities. The 
alkalies, freed from the embrace of silica, dissolve, 
and are borne seaward, the silica itself is dissolved 
by the water used for drink ; the insoluble alumina 
remains, forming the great mass of clays, or mixed 
with granitic sand, forms loam. 

77. Felspar, mica, hornblende, are constantly 
acted upon by air and moisture. This action is 
chemical. It is twofold. 1st. The action of the 
carbonic acid of the air, or of carbonates, upon sil- 
icates. The potash, or alkaline part of the silicate 
is by this means separated. The mineral no longer 
held by the bond which had held its components, 
falls into dust. The silica, lime, alumina, magne- 
sia, thus form the finer portions of soil. In obedi- 
ence to a well established fact, in chemistry, the 
seemingly insoluble silica, and alumina, and mag- 
nesia, in the very moment of their disunion, are 
each soluble in water. They may then be taken 
up by plants, or dissolved by various acids, formed 
in the soil, form salts. 



46 ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 

78. The second mode of action, of air and mois- 
ture, is upon the urets, upon the sulphurets, the 
phosphurets, and silicurets. The action of air upon 
all these is, to oxidate, both the metallic base, and 
the unmetallic element. In a word, the urets, by- 
air and moisture, become salts ; the unmetallic 
part, becoming acid, and the base an oxide, which 
combine. 

79. The fact most important to the farmer, in 
these changes is, that the urets are continually, in 
all soil, becoming salts. Whenever iron pyrites, or 
sulphuret of iron is found, and it is very widely 
diffused, exposure to air and moisture, acidifies the 
sulphur, it forms oil of vitriol, or sulphuric acid. 
This immediately combines with iron, and forms 
copperas, or sulphate of iron, or with alumina, 
forming alum, or with lime, forming Plaster of 
Paris, or with magnesia, forming Epsom salts ; all 
these are salts, and liable to be decomposed, by any 
free alkali, which may be|produced, by the decom- 
position of silicates. 

80. Among the most abundant salts in soil, aris- 
ing from the actions (79) are those, w^hich are very 
insoluble in water, and not liable, therefore to be 
drained off, when not required by plants. These 
are sulphate of lime, and phosphates of lime, and 
of alumina, and iron. The sulphate of lime is par- 
tially soluble, and hence, is found in all river and 
spring water ; but phosphates are more insoluble, 
and are always found in soil. 

' 81. That sulphate of lime might possibly exist 
in soil, has been admitted by all who understood 
the actions, (79) and adding to this the fact, of the 
gradual decomposition of the silicates, by carbonic 
acid, the function of sulphate of lime in soil, was 
easily admitted. The double silicates of lime and 



ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 47 

potash, are universally diffused, and in the order of 
affinities, sulphates of alkalies, and of lime result. 

82. It is not so easily understood, how phosphate 
of lime should exist in soil. The true source, both 
of sulphate, and phosphate of lime, and of the sol- 
ubility of silica, is yet to be detected, by exact 
chemical analysis. It is to be looked for in the sul- 
phurets and phosphurets of silicon, which probably 
exist in rocks. The action of sulphuret of iron, as 
explained, would demand its universal diffusion, to 
account for the presence of sulphate of lime. Sul- 
phuret of iron, must either now exist, or have ages 
ago existed, as widely diffused as the silicates. 
But though common in rocks, its presence as a sul- 
phuret, will not account for the quantity of sulphate 
of lime found in soil. Vast quantities of this salt 
are annually borne off in crops ; while at the same 
time, a large portion of that hardest, and as is gen- 
erally supposed, utterly insoluble earth, silex is 
withdrawn by every plant which grows. How is 
this rendered soluble ? 

83. This question may be answered, if it be ad- 
mitted, that a large portion of the silica of rocks, 
exists as a sulphuret of silicon. The action of air, 
and moisture upon this, will be understood by refer- 
ing to section 68, where it is stated, that sulphuret 
of silicon, is decomposed by water. The sulphur, 
in this case, is evolved as sulphuretted hydrogen 
gas, the silica deposited, and in this state, is abun- 
dantly soluble in w^ater. The sulphuretted hydro- 
gen, would act on the lime of the silicates, and 
gradually, sulphate of lime would be formed. 
Here is an abundant source, not only of the solu- 
bility of silica, a point always of difficult explana- 
nation, in vegetable physiology, but also of the pro- 
duction of sulphate of lime. 



48 ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 

84. Similar remarks are applicable to the pres- 
ence of the phosphates of lime, and iron, and alum- 
ina in soil. Phosphate of lime is not a very uni- 
versal ingredient in rocks. In certain localities it is 
abundant, yet its occurrence is too rare to account 
for the vast amount of phosphate of lime in soil. 
The phosphorus possibly exists, in combination 
with silicon, as phosphuret of silicon. The effect 
of air and moisture on this, has already been ex- 
plained, and accounts for the production of phos- 
phates in soil. Similar remarks are applicable to 
the source of the chlorides or muriates ; for instance, 
common salt in the potash of commerce. May not 
their source be in chloride of silicon ? These are 
conjectures, but conjectures only because, refined as 
modern chemical analysis is, it may not be so deli- 
cate, as to detect the possible combinations, which 
nature presents in silicates. What is the source of 
that phosphoric odour, produced by the friction of 
fragments of pure quartz on each other ? If not 
due wholly to electrical excitement, may it not arise 
from the presence of phosphoric elements? The 
elements are Protean,, and assume new dresses, by 
the very processes adopted to unfold them. What- 
ever may be their origin, their constant presence 
leads to this fifth principle of Agricultural Chem- 
istry, ALL SOIL CONTAINS SULPHATE AND PHOSPHATE 
OF LIME. 

85. This principle is of the highest importance in 
agriculture. The author of these pages, stated the 
fact, to the Geological Surveyor of Massachusetts, 
in 1837, and it was published in his Report. Slow- 
ly admitted at first, the fact, that phosphates exist 
in all soil, has been established by the widest obser- 
vations. Its proofs are both chemical and agricul- 
tural. The chemical proof is found in the extensive 



ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 49 

analyses of soil, contained in the various Geological 
Reports, especially those of Massachusetts, pub- 
lished within a few years. The agricultural proof, 
may be stated in a few words. 

86. First, the bones of all graminiverous animals, 
contain about half their weight of phosphate of lime. 
It can be derived only from their food, and that 
only from the soil. Hence, the soil contains phos- 
phoric acids in some chemical combination. Sec- 
ondly, the actual result of chemical analysis, con- 
firms this statement. Beets, carrots, beans, peas, 
potatoes, asparagus, cabbage, afford phosphates of 
lime, magnesia, and potash, varying from 0-04 to 1 
per cent, of the vegetable. Indian corn contains 
11-2 per cent, of phosphate and sulphate of lime. 
Rice, wheat, barley, oats, all contain notable por- 
tions of sulphate and phosphate of lime, not only in 
the grain, but in the straw. Smut and ergot, show 
free phosphoric acid. Cotton gives 1 per cent, of 
ashes, of which 0*17 are phosphates of lime and 
magnesia. The cotton consumed weekly, in the 
Lowell Mills, is 400,000 lbs. containing 680 lbs. of 
phosphate of lime, and this would furnish the bone- 
earth, for the bones of 17 horses, allowing 90 lbs. 
to each skeleton, of which 40 lbs. would consist of 
phosphate of lime. That beautiful yellow powder, 
shed by pine forests, the pollen of its flowers, waft- 
ed about in clouds, and descending with the rain, 
covering the surface of water with its sulphur-like 
film, is composed of 6 per cent, of phosphates of 
lime and potash. The ashes of all wood, contain 
sulphate and phosphate of lime. Garget contains 
in its leaves beautiful crystals of phosphate of lime 
and ammonia, whilst the little delicate plants, grow- 
ing almost beneath its shade, mouse-ear-everlasting, 
and early saxifrage, contain in their leaves carbon- 
ate of lime. 



50 ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL. 



CHAPTER IV. 

OF THE ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF 
SOIL. 

87. The mineral elements of soil, become part 
of plants. Under the influence of the mysterious 
principle of life, they no longer obey the chemical 
laws, but are parts of a living structure. Life sus- 
pends all chemical laws. It organizes inorganic 
matter. To what laws obedient, to what purposes 
subservient, are the elements of soil- during the brief 
moment, in which they are endowed with life, it is 
not intended to inquire. Plants by their living pow- 
er, select from the fifty-five elementary substances, 
fifteen only ; of these, three are gaseous, oxygen, 
hy4rogen, nitrogen ; one, chlorine, exists only as a 
component of a salt, as in common salt ; seven be- 
long to the class silicates, second division, and four 
to the class urets. (44.) 

88. Every plant does not, nor does every part 
of the same plant contain the same elements ; but 
every part of the same plant, at the same age, prob- 
ably contains the same elements, united in definite 
proportions. Whenever plants die, their elements 
are again subject to the laws of affinity, and during 
the decay of vegetables, they return to the earth, 
not only those substances which the plants had tak- 
en from the soil, but also those which have been 



ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL. 51 

elaborated by their living structure. The former 
are silicates and salts, or the inorganic elements ; 
the latter, are the organic parts of soil. 

In the first edition of this work, chlorine was not 
enumerated as an element of plants. Its presence 
in them was considered accidental, because its 
source was not detected in the rocks, from whose 
ruins, soil has been formed. Plants are good ana- 
lysts, and may detect elements, where chemistry 
cannot ; yet it is difficult to believe, that chloride 
can exist as abundantly in soil, originally, as their 
presence in plants indicates, and yet elude our pro- 
cesses. The possible existence of chloride of silicon 
has been noticed. If this is not the source of the 
chlorine of plants, it must be supposed to be evapo- 
rated as a chloride from the ocean, and conse- 
quently to exist in that state, dissolved in air. If 
derived from this salt in soil, then that is extraneous. 
Its origin was suggested to be oceanic. An exam- 
ination of the rain-water, of each fall, since March 
last, has shown that this suggestion is correct. Prob- 
ably muriates are universally contained in rain- 
water. As therefore, common salt, the chlorine, 
and soda of plants is derived by evaporation from 
sea- water, then as sulphate of lime has been detect- 
ed in snow and hail, it becomes a question, whether 
other inorganic salts of plants, may not have a 
similar origin, and exist dissolved in air. 

89. It is thus seen, that soil presents itself in a 
new view. Soil consists of two grand divisions of 
elements. Inorganic, and organic. The inorganic 
are wholly mineral, they are the products of the 
chemical action of the metallic, or unmetallic ele- 
ments of rocks. They existed before plants or ani- 
mals. Life has not called them into existence, nor 



52 ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL. 

created them, out of simple elements. Organic 
elements are the product of substances once en- 
dowed with life. This power influences the ele- 
ments, recombines them in forms, so essentially 
connected with life, that they are, with few excep- 
tions, produced only by a living process. They 
are the products of living organs, hence termed, 
organic ; and when formed, are subject to chemical 
laws. The number of elements in the inorganic 
parts of soil, is twelve. Oxygen, sulphur, phos- 
phorus, carbon, silicon, and the metals, potassium, 
sodium, calcium, aluminium, magnesium, iron, and 
manganese. (56) The number of elements in or- 
ganic parts of soil, does not exceed four, oxygen, 
hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. 

90. The great difference between these two di- 
visions, is this, that while the inorganic are simple 
combinations of two elementary substances, the or- 
ganic, are combinations of three or four elements, 
but never less than three. These are variously 
combined. They have formed the great body of 
vegetable products ; continually changing, the mere 
abstraction of a part of once of their elements forms 
a new product. The three elements, (89) exist 
generally in such proportion, that the oxygen and 
hydrogen would, by their union, produce water, with- 
out excess of either element, while the carbon 
would thus be liberated. It would be found free 
were it not also acted upon by air and moisture, 
and changed to carbonic acid. There is not oxy- 
gen enough in the organic part, to convert the car- 
bon into carbonic acid, and the hydrogen into water. 
They are constantly changing, assuming new forms. 
This susceptibility of change, is the foundation of 
tillage. 



ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 53 

91. The relation of agriculture, to silicates and 
salts, and to the composition of plants alluded to, 
(89) is of the highest interest. As silicates and 
salts compose all the earthy ingredients of soil, so 
are they equally constant in plants. The deduc- 
tion to be drawn from this, is the sixth principle of 
agricultural chemistry, soil, consisting chiefly 

OF ONE SILICATE, OR SALT, IS ALWAYS BARREN. 

92. It is not probable that soil, thus chemically 
constituted, exists. Admitting such to occur, even 
then, when dressed with the food of plants, it would 
not be fertile. The want of a mixture of earthy 
ingredients, which are as essential to the growth of 
plants, as are air and moisture, would effectually 
prevent the growth of crops. Only a portion of 
the elements, thus essential to plants, exists in them, 
in that state, in which they exist in soil. The silica, 
and potash, and lime, exist in plants as in soil, as 
silicate of potash, and sulphates and phosphates of 
lime and potash. When the ashes of plants are 
examined, we find carbonates of bases, which did 
not exist as such in the soil. A large portion of 
carbonates of lime and potash is found in ashes. 

93. The origin of these, is to be sought in acids, 
which, by heat produce carbonic acid. This is the 
effect of heat upon all salts, formed of vegetable 
acids. Such are tartaric, malic, citric, oxalic, and 
acetic acids. The inorganic elements of plants, 

exist in combination chiefly with organic or vege- 
table acids. Each plant forms acids, in definite 
quantity, proportionate to the size, age, and part of 
the plants ; the acid being constant, the bases to 
.saturate them, will be equally constant. 

94. A curious and beautiful chemical law gov- 
erns this saturation, of the vegetable acids. It is 
the law of isomorphism, or the law of similar forms. 



54 LAW OF ISOMORPHISM- 

In minerals which are crystaUized, it was formerly 
thought that similarity of external form, indicated 
identity of chemical composition. Later observa- 
tion has established the fact, that minerals and salts 
exist, with perfect similarity of external form, yet 
of totally different chemical constitution. For ex- 
ample, the alumina in alum, may be replaced by 
oxide of iron. The form will not be changed; but 
all its chemical properties and relations are de- 
stroyed. This is called an isomorphous substitu- 
tion, of one element for another, which produces a 
like form. The law of this substitution is, that the 
body, replacing another, must be, not an equal, but 
an equivalent proportion (56) ; that is, replaced by a 
proportion, containing the same quantity of oxygen. 

95. The relation between agriculture and this 
law is so wisely and beneficially ordained, that it 
might well be called, a law of compensation, by the 
Natural Theologian. It is a well established fact, 
that plants, growing on soil, containing a due mix- 
ture of earthy ingredients, always select a due pro- 
portion of each, according to their fimctions ; yot, 
if to such soil, an excess of either of the alkalies, 
or of the alkaline earths is given, an excess of pot- 
ash, soda, lime, magnesia, may be taken up by the 
plants, to the exclusion of the usual proportion of 
another ; hence, it may be established, as the sev- 
enth principle in Agricultural Chemistry, one base 

MAY BE SUBSTITUTED FOR ANOTHER, IN AN ISOMOR- 
PHOUS PROPORTION. 

96. This is a very important law, in the agricul- 
tural relations of the inorganic parts of soil. What- 
ever may be the office, performed by these, in the 
living structure, none is of higher value than this, that 
they may be thus substituted, the one for the other. 
It is a fact, of tlie highest practical value. Its value 



LAW OF ISOMORPHISM. 55 

will be perceived, when it is considered, that if soil, 
containing originally all the elements, essential to a 
crop, becomes exhausted of one, yet another may 
be substituted, which combining with the organic 
acid of the plant, enables this to perform and per- 
fect all its functions. If a crop fails, this is often 
charged upon the deficiency of lime in the soil. It 
has been already shown, that this is quite impossi- 
ble, yet granting it true, so long as the law of iso- 
morphism exists, so long may potash, soda, mag- 
nesia, that is, ashes, supply the place of lime. 

97. Isomorphous substitutions in plants, relate 
only to the bases combined with the vegetable or 
organic acids. The mineral or inorganic acids, 
exist already saturated in the soil, as sulphates, 
phosphates, or muriates. 

98. In consequence of the law of isomorphism, 
the oxygen in the bases of organic acid salts is a 
constant quantity, although ashes of the same plant 
may, by analysis, show a great diversity of compo- 
sition ; this can arise only from the fact, that the 
organic acids exist, probably in a definite propor- 
tion, in each family of plants. The acids are 
formed by the essential vital functions of the plant. 
To the perfection of this process, the silicates and 
salts of the soil, are not less necessaiy, than is life 
to the vegetable ; but though one element may be 
substituted for another, j^et no one element may 
supply the place of all others. This is a problem 
yet to be solved. Nor may any possible mixture 
of mere silicates and salts, give fertility to a barren 
soil. Fertility depends on the presence in soil, of 
matter, which has already formed a part of a living 
structure, or the organic elements of soil. 

99. The inorganic are simple combinations ; the 
organic simple in number, but wonderful complex 



56 ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 

in their combinations. It is an established fact, that 
all complex compounds, are unstable. They are 
prone to form new combinations. The more com- 
plex, the easier decomposed is any compound. The 
more complex, the more liable to decomposition. 
Hence, the moment life departs, the plant or ani- 
mal speedily undergoes new changes ; its elements, 
which life had organized, obey now, not the law of 
life, but the laws of chemistry. The solids and 
fluids of a living body, when life ceases, escaping 
in part as air or gas, leave in a solid form, a sub- 
stance, differing equally from any living organic 
product, and from inorganic elements. The pro- 
duct of the spontaneous decomposition of organic 
substances, still may exhibit the character which 
distinguishes this division, viz : complexity, great 
susceptibility and ease of decomposition. 

100. Hence, in the products of the decomposi- 
tion of organic bodies, a variety is formed, differing 
according to the circumstances, and the time, and 
progress of decay. However varied, there is one 
constant product of organic decomposition in soil, 
which is, ever the result of that process, in or upon 
the earth. This product is termed Geine. Ge is 
the Greek for earth, and the suffix ine, is in con- 
formity to chemical names, given to those vegetable 
or other organic products, whose independent ex- 
istence has been determined ; for example, quinine, 
morphine, &c. 

101, While the gi*eat mass of organic matter of 
soil, is a well defined chemical compound, termed 
geine, consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, 
there are traces of other general products of decay, 
which, in addition to the elements above, contain 
nitrogen. There is thus naturally pointed out, a di- 
vision of the organic matter of soil, into two classes ; 



GEINE. 57 

that which does not, and that which does, contain 
nitrogen. 

102. The first class, or non-nitrogenous, com- 
prises three substances, which have been termed, 
1st, extract of soil, or of humus; 2d, geine, or hu- 
mic acid; and 3d, carbonaceous soil, or humin. 
These are chemically the same, passing from one 
state to the other, without changing the relative 
proportions in which they were combined. 

103. The second class, or nitrogenous, comprises 
two substances — crenic and apocrenic acids. These 
approach the three above named in their constitu- 
tion, and by some authors, they are considered 
identical. The distinction of geine into nitroge- 
nous, and non-nitrogenous, is founded in nature. 
These classes cannot mutually pass, the one to the 
other. The presence of nitrogen, in crenic and 
apocrenic acid, proves unanswerably, that the geine 
of chemists, cannot be composed of a mixture of 
these acids. They may not be made members of 
the class to which that element belongs, except by 
a change of chemical constitution. The question 
whether this ever occurs, though philosophically in- 
teresting, is of no practical consequence. Nor is it 
of practical utility to discuss the question, whether 
plants draw their carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitro- 
gen, from the air, or from the soil. The nourish- 
ment drawn from air, depends on the great physical 
elements, air, temperature, moisture. Agriculture 
may not control these. It can palliate them, only 
by controlling that within its power, the state of the 
soil. With all above ground, the farmer has little 
concern. If plants are nourished, chiefly from the 
air, it is evident that the farmer, is concerned only 
to produce that state of the developement of the 
organs of plants, best adapted to the aspiration of 



58 GEINE. 

the aerial elements. This state is influenced chiefly 
by the soil. There is the farmer's true field of 
action. 

104. Differ as opinions may, about its ultimate 
chemical constitution, and the mode of action of 
geine, whether by being taken up as a solution of 
geine, and of its compounds with the earths and 
metals, called geates, or only as a source of car- 
bonic acid, the great practical lesson of all agricul- 
tural experience, teaches that geine is essential tp 
the growth and perfection of seed ; that without 
geine, crops are not raised. Geine is as essential 
to plants, as is food to animals. So far as nourish- 
ment is derived from the soil, geine is the food of 
plants. It may be laid down as the eighth princi- 
ple of agricultural chemistry, geine, in some form 
IS essential to agriculture. 

105. In all its forms, it is agriculturally one and 
the same thing. They are all included in the terms 
humus, or mould, or geine. Geine,' in its agricul- 
tural sense, is a generic term. It includes all the 
decomposed organic matter of the soil. It concerns 
the farmer less to know the chemical constitution, 
than it does the practical, agricultural value of a 
class of compounds, termed geine. Restricting 
that term to the definite compound, which chemists 
call geine, an account of its relations, will convey 
a full idea of whatever other organic compounds 
are found in soil. 

106. It has been stated already, that geine is 
the product of decomposition of bodies, once en- 
dowed with life. For the present purpose, it may 
be considered, as the result of vegetable decom- 
position. 

107. Life, and the manner how plants grow, may 
not be understood. Growth is a living process. 



GEINE. 59 

Decay is a chemical process. Its laws are not only- 
understood, but its products may be limited, con- 
trolled, hastened. Decay is fermentation, and this 
marked by its several stages, ends in putrefaction. 
Putrefaction is the silent and onward march of de- 
cay. Its goal is geine. 

108. If dry vegetable matters are soaked in wa- 
ter, that is soon discolored, a product of decompo- 
sition is obtained ; its peculiar character is, solu- 
bility in water. This solution, being exposed to air, 
soon becomes filled with little flocks, which gradu- 
ally subside. This sediment is still a very little 
soluble in water, but so very sparingly, that it may 
be said to be insoluble. If the sediment is exposed 
a little time, to air, it regains the property of solu- 
bility in water, is easily dissolved in part, by potash 
ley, or any alkaline ley, whether caustic or mild. 

109. The original brown solution may be consid- 
ered as extract of mould. The sediment as geine 
and carbonaceous mould. These are either soluble 
or insoluble in water, or alkali ; and hence, geine is 
divided into soluble and insoluble. The soluble is 
dissolved by water, by alcohol, by alkalies. The 
insoluble cannot be dissolved by any of these agents, 
nor by acids. The properties of geine, in water 
and alkali, or its behavior, as it is termed, is of the 
highest importance to the farmer, and are to be 
considered in detail. 

110. The first and earliest product of decay, is 
that which is so easily soluble in water (108). If 
it could be at once seized upon, it would be, doubt- 
less, a perfectly colorless solution, but it changes to 
a brownish color by exposure to air. This charac- 
ter is very common in solutions of organic matter. 
It is due in this case to the formation of the insolu- 
ble state. 



60 GEINE. 

111. If a little alum is dissolved in the watery 
solution of geine, and then a few drops of spirits of 
hartshorn, or sal volatile, or as it is termed by chem- 
ists, water of ammonia, are added, the earth alu- 
mina will be let loose from the alum, and it will 
immediately combine with, and precipitate the 
geine, that is, little flocks fall down gradually in 
the liquor. Hence, is derived an important char- 
acter. Geine has a great affinity for alumina. If 
lime had been added to the solution of geine, the 
same elTect would have followed. The same effect 
would be produced, by magnesia, by oxide of iron, 
and by manganese. 

112. Alumina, lime, magnesia, oxides of iron, 
and Tiaanganese, will therefore in soil, immediately 
seize upon any soluble geine, and forming com- 
pounds with it, detain it there. The air and water 
will have now little action upon it. 

113. But supposing that none of these elements 
(112) are present in soil, the fact stated (110) shows 
that all soluble geine, or solution of extract in water, 
soon passes to a mixture of soluble and insoluble, 
forming a dark brown powder. This is thus with- 
drawn, deep in the soil, from the immediate action 
of the air, and undergoes no further change. It may 
remain unchanged an indefinite time. If ploughed 
up, exposed any how to the action of air or mois- 
ture, it again becomes partly soluble in water, and 
exhibits its former characters, viz : great affinity 
for earths and metallic oxides. In this state it is 

VEGETABLE MOULD. 

114. Vegetable mould then, is a mixture of the 
organic, and inorganic elements of soil. It is a 
compound of soluble geine, with earths and metals, 
mixed with soluble and insoluble geine. It is a 
chemical compound of organic with inorganic parts 



GEINE. 61 

of soil, mixed with a large portion of free organic 
matter. 

115. The inorganic elements of mould are, 1st. 
Those which already had existed in plants, com- 
bined with vegetable acids. These last, by decom- 
position escape as carbonic acid, or, in acid vapors 
and water, while the bases, or earths and oxides 
with w^hich they were combined, remain, and are 
immediately seized upon by the forming geine ; 
while the uncombined geine passes to the state of 
a brown coally powder. 

116. The properties of this brown powder of 
mould, are, 1st. Partial solubility in water. Cold 
water dissolves only about one-twenty-iive-hun- 
dredth part of its weight, hot water a little more. 
2d. It is a perfectly neutral substance, exhibiting 
neither acid, nor alkaline properties, but all alkalies 
develope it in acid properties. In this state it is 
termed geic or humic acid. It is evident therefore, 
that geic or humic acid can never exist free in soil, 
so long as free bases are there present, as lime, 
alumina, iron, &c. It is produced by the action of 
alkaline bases, and immediately combines with 
them, forming salts, which are termed geates. 

117. A third property of the brown powder of 
mould is, that after alkalies have acted on it, and 
developed acid properties, its solubility in water is 
considerably increased, while it continues in a moist 
state. If dried, in this acid state, it becomes almost 
insoluble in water. 

118. The geates found in soil, have the following 
characters. 1st. All the alkaline geates are very 
soluble in water. The solution is of a brown color, 
according to its strength, from a light brown to a 
deep coffee color, almost black ; acids precipitate 
this solution, and the geine falls in light brown 



6d GEATES. 

flocks, exceedingly bulky. This precipitate may 
be washed in water, rendered a little acid ; but sim- 
ple water, in consequence of the great solubility of 
geine, developed by its combination with alkali, will 
dissolve nearly all the precipitate. 

2d. Lime water, added to a solution of an alka- 
line geate, forms a precipitate of geate of lime. It 
is to be observed, that a cautious and gradual addi- 
tion of lime water forms a precipitate, which imme- 
diately re-dissolves. This is soluble geate of lime. 
It requires 2000 parts of water to dissolve it, being 
a very little more soluble than geine itself, and only 
half as soluble as lime alone. An excess of lime 
water precipitates all the geine as insoluble geate of 
lime. The properties of this insoluble geate of 
lime, are, 

119. 1st. Almost perfect insolubility in water 
and alkalies. 

2d. Decomposable by alkalies. 

120. Geate of magnesia is easily soluble in water. 
It is the most soluble of all the earthy geates. It 
requires only 160 parts of water to dissolve one of 
geate of magnesia. It is decomposable by alkalies, 
and then both acid and base are dissolved. The 
geates of lime and magnesia when exposed to air, 
absorb carbonic acid ; a salt is formed, containing 
an excess of geine, that is, the carbonic acid unites 
with a part of the lime. These super-geates, as 
they are termed, are always much more soluble, 
than the neutral geates. 

121. Geate of alumina, is soluble in water, and 
in alkali, without decomposition. It requires 4200 
parts of water to dissolve it, but is abundantly solu- 
ble in alkali. 

122. Geate of iron requires 2300 parts of water 
to dissolve it. Like geate of alumina, it dissolves 
easily in alkaline carbonates. 



GEATES. 63 

123. Geate of manganese requires 1450 parts of 
water to dissolve it, and though soluble in ammonia, 
is insoluble in potash or soda. 

124. The properties of the geates are of the 
highest practical importance. The three earths, 
lime, m*agnesia, and alumina, are universal constit- 
uents of soil, and the two first are constantly pres- 
ent in plants. In their relation to geine, these all 
combine with that, they all form soluble compounds, 
in the moist state, but after having been thoroughly 
dried, these geates are insoluble, even sun baking 
diminishes their solubility. In this dried state, they 
are earthy^ powders, and have long been mistaken 
for earthy portions of soil. The fact, that lime and 
magnesia form super-salts, (120) may help to ex- 
plain why the free use of lime, may often require 
a long time to develope any beneficial effects. At 
first, its action renders the geine insoluble ; and it 
is only when by exposure, the lime is changed in 
part to a carbonate, and thus rendered inert, that a 
super-geate of lime, which is very soluble, forms 
and begins to show its effects upon vegetation. 
The easy decomposition of geate of lime, by alka- 
line carbonates, teaches also, that if to geate of lime 
is added an alkaline carbonate, the geine may be 
dissoluble, aBd brought into use. It is probable, 
that when land has been overlimed, the evil can 
be corrected only, by the use of ashes. The car- 
bonate of lime will act on the silicates, as will be 
hereafter shown. 

125. The properties and relations of geine with 
water, are also of the highest agricultural value 
(116). The great insolubility shows at once how 
small must be the amount of this portion of soil, 
which can be ever removed by drainage or filtra- 
tion, by flood, or rain, and that in the practice of 



64 EFFECT OF ALKALI ON GEINE. 

irrigation, very little effect can be due to the solvent 
power of water on geine. Its almost total insolu- 
bility, seems a wise provision, of a far-reaching 
Providence, that an element of soil, which has been 
and can be produced, by the decay of organic 
bodies only, and chiefly by plants on its Surface, 
should not be borne away by the first falling shower. 

126. Not less important to the farmer, are the 
relations of geine to alkalies, its solubility is won- 
derfully increased by their action ; this is a most 
valuable, because available property ; it allows the 
farmer to bring into use, by the application of alka- 
lies, the geine, which, in its insoluble state is quite 
useless. This remarkable property, is not confined 
to that portion of geine, which it may be supposed, 
is chemically combined with alkali. Alkali, by the 
mere action of presence, by its catalytic action, 
which will be hereafter explained, renders an in- 
definite, but large quantity of geine soluble in water. 
This is a principle of high practical value, and were 
the results of the principles detailed in the forego- 
ing pages, to terminate in this fact, that alone right- 
ly pondered, would account for a vast number of 
facts, in vegetable physiology, and lead to new 
views in the pursuit of agriculture, not less import- 
ant than practical. ^ 

127. Hitherto the action of geine on soil only, 
has been considered, and its chemical composition 
pointed out, sufliciently for all practical purposes. 
The chemical proportion of the elements of geine 
is unconnected with the practical question, how far 
it is essential to plants. The fact, that the most 
barren soil contains these elements in vast quanti- 
ty, that exhausted land is nearly equally rich in 
these, as is the highly productive, has been .over- 
looked. The amount of nitrogen in geine, even in 



EFFECT OF ALKALI ON GEINE. 65 

exhausted soil, is sufficient to supply that element, 
to several crops of grain. The amount of carbon, 
oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, in a poor, sandy, 
barren soil, has been proved, by chemical analysis, 
to be not less than 34 tons per acre, taking the soil 
at only a foot in depth. If the light of modern 
chemistry, shall hereafter teach, that these are nev- 
er taken from the geine of soil, it will teach also, 
what the true action of geine is. If no approach to 
the solution of this important question, has yet been 
made, still the absolute necessity of geine in soil, is 
admitted by all practical men. Some attempt to 
explain this fact, will be presented in the next 
chapter; and the following appendix may be omit- 
ted by those to whom practical results are of more 
value than speculations of philosophy. It is hoped, 
however, that the new and important analyses, con- 
tained in this appendix, will amply repay the labor 
of studying their results, now for the first time laid 
before the American farmer. 



66 HISTORY OF GEINE. 



APPENDIX TO CHAPTER IV. 
HISTORY OF GEINE. 

Some account of the chemical history of a sub- 
stance which has caused no little discussion in late 
agricultural reports, and publications, may not be 
here misplaced. It may tend to soften the doubts 
of those who are, and with reason, apt to mistrust 
the utility of a substance, upon whose chemical 
nature, there is such an apparent difference of opin- 
ion. If farmers are to wait till doctors agree, there 
will be no harvest. Happily this discussion is in no 
wise connected with the practical application of 
geine. It is a difference about names, not things. 
In 1797, Vauquelin, a distinguished French chem- 
ist, gave an account of a substance which had ex- 
uded from the bark of an elm tree. It was a shin- 
ing, brittle, black substance, insoluble in alcohol, 
soluble in hot water, with a brown color, and con- 
tained potash. 

In 1802, Klaproth, a Swedish analyst, received 
from Palermo, a specimen of this elm gum, and 
found it contained a portion of resinous matter, and 
confirmed Vauquelin's observations. In 1810, Ber- 
zelius, the most acute chemist of the age, in exper- 
imenting on the barks of .various trees, noticed 
products similar to the elm gum, particularly in 
pine bark, Peruvian bark, and especially in the elm, 
whose properties will be presently mentioned ; but 



HISTORY OF GEINE. 67 

he not only gave these products no name, but point- 
ed out marked differences between them. The 
substance found in pine, is allied to what is called 
pectic acid, that in Peruvian bark approaches starch, 
while that from the elm is only a variety of vege- 
table mucilage. 

In 1812, James Smithson, an English chemist, 
gave to the Royal Society of London, an account 
of his experiments on elm gum, which he had re- 
ceived from the same place and person, who origi- 
nally sent the article to Klaproth. Smithson thought 
the substance more allied to extractive matter, than 
to resin, and noticed that it contained 20 per cent, 
of potash. A similar substance obtained from the 
exudation of an English elm, contained a larger 
per centage of potash, but no trace of this new sub- 
stance was detected in elm sap. 

In 1813, Dr. Thomas Thomson, the Coryphaeus 
of British chemists, experimented on this elm gum 
in its several varieties, and embracing the prevalent 
opinion of its distinct nature, not however, because 
prevalent, but from his own researches, erected it 
into a distinct vegetable principle under the name 
of ULMiN, from ulmus, the Latin for elm. He con- 
founded under this name, the several products 
noticed by Berzelius, in bark ; and hence, thinks 
there are several varieties of this substance, though 
Berzelius does not countenance this idea. Thom- 
son was the first who ever procured ulmin pure, but 
this was not the elm mucilage, but the extractive 
matter, and he thus gave the name ulmin, to the 
apotheme of Berzelius. 

Not long after this n»me had become the prop- 
erty of Chemists, Braconnot found, in experiment- 
ing on the action of alkali, on woody fibre, that a 
substance was produced analogous to elm gum and 



68 HISTORY OF GEINE. 

the varieties of ulmin, and in 1830, Boullay noticed 
that ulmin had acid properties, and gave to it the 
name of ulmic acid. 

The properties and relations of ulmin and of ul- 
mic acid, now engaged the attention of many ex- 
pert chemists. It was found to be the product of a 
great many vegetable decompositions by various 
agents, by alkali, by acids, earths, oxides, by fire, 
by water. All these hasten the process of decay. 
As a general law, it may be stated that all sub- 
stances oxidating, and gently acting on organic 
matter, produce ulmin. Hence it was found in a 
vast variety of substances, and even cast-iron was 
found to contain about 2 per cent, of a compound, 
so analogous to ulmin, that it is so called. But 
above all, it was found to be the great product of 
spontaneous decay of plants, and hence existed 
abundantly in peat and soil. Sprengel, directing 
his attention particularly to its existence in soil, be- 
fore that form of it was universally allowed to be 
identical with ulmin and ulmic acid, bestowed on it 
the name of liumic acid, from the Latin, humus, or 
mould. Sprengel investigated minutely the various 
salts of this substance, and first endeavored to de- 
termine its chemical constituents. 

Boullay soon followed in the same path of inves- 
tigation, and with almost similar results. There 
were marked differences between all the forms, yet 
observed, that is, between elm gum of Palermo, the 
product of bark, the artificial ulmin of Braconnot, 
and that of soil. A multitude of different, but anal- 
ogous substances were confounded under a common 
name, which began to be applied to the matter of 
all vegetables, which after having been treated with 
alcohol and water, yielded to alkali a solution, pre- 
cipitable in brown flocks, by an acid. Under these 



HISTORY OF GEINE. 69 

circumstances, Berzelius objected to the term alto- 
gether, and if there is a substance to which he would 
apply the name ulmin, it is to the mucilage of elm. 
As this has been the source of no small confusion, 
an account of it may be here introduced. Elm 
bark is treated with alcohol. The tincture is evap- 
orated dry, and the extract treated with water, 
which dissolves a brown extractive matter, leaves 
an insoluble residue, which, being treated with ether, 
leaves a small quantity of a brownish matter, anal- 
ogous to the extractive of chemists, or the brown 
apotheme of Berzelius. The sap of elm contains 
acetate and carbonate of potash. Here, then, are 
all the elements of elm gum, as examined by Vau- 
quelin, Klaproth, Smithson, Thomson. Not only 
the elm, but other trees, under diseased action, ex- 
ude these matters, and under the influence of air, 
and the potash, the diseased exudation from the elm 
bark, is changed to true ulmic acid, which unites 
with the potash, and both with the mucilage. The 
mucilage, may, by processes, not here necessary to 
be detailed, be procured pure, as a hard, opaque, 
colorless, insipid, and inodorous gum. It moistens 
easily, swells in water, becoming a semi-transparent 
mucilage. It is insoluble in alkali, affords no am- 
monia by dry distillation. Boiled with alkaline ley, 
it affords a clear mucilaginous liquor, which browns 
by being exposed to air. If this ley or solution is 
exactly neutralized by acetic acid, lime-water and 
salts of lime produce no precipitate in it, and it is 
only rendered slightly turbid by sulphuric, nitric 
and muriatic acids. It is not precipitated by ace- 
tate of lead, nor by sulphate of iron. With alcohol 
and sub-acetate of lead, it affords a mucilaginous 
precipitate. It is evident that it differs widely from 
artificial ulmin, and from ulmin of soil, and there- 



70 HISTORY OF GEINE. 

fore, when Berzelius turned his attention to that, 
having advised the abandonment of the name ulmin, 
as inappUcabie to any one substance, he bestowed 
on the ulmin of soil, the name of geine, from the 
Greek gc, earth. If a distinction is therefore to be 
maintained, it may be said, that ulmin is the pro- 
duct of life ; geine, of decay. 

The mass of matter called mould or humus, has 
many analogies with the artificial ulmin of authors ; 
but taken as a whole, there are decided differences. 
Th^se were noticed by Berzelius, and hence he di- 
vided, in an edition of his chemistry, (French trans- 
lation of 1832,) the constituents of the organic part 
of mould or humus, into 

1st. Extract of mould. 2d. Geine. 3d. Car- 
bonaceous mould, or coal of humus, as it is often 
termed. He noticed that these mutually passed into 
each other. This shows a great similarity if not 
identity of chemical constituents. He did not pre- 
tend to determine that, but by his" citing, in order to 
determine the elements of his No. 2, or geine, the 
analysis of Sprengel, of humic acid, and of that of 
ulmic acid by Boullay, it is evident that he consid- 
ered his geine, identical with their humic and ulmic 
acids ; but still he considered new researches to be 
necessary, to determine accurately the composition 
of either. Later experiments have not only con- 
firmed the accuracy of Sprengel and Boullay, but 
the progress of discovery has proved the perfect 
identity of ulmin, humin, geine and of ulmic, hu- 
mic, geic acid, and hence, Berzelius has withdrawn 
the name geine, and returned to that of humic acid, 
the usual term applied to the organic matter of soil. 
He could not, consistently, have gone back a step 
further, and substituted ulmin for geine, particularly 



HISTORY OF GEINE. 71 

after he was violently attacked by Raspail, for aban- 
doning that ancient, and much abused name. * 

The great distinction pointed out by Berzehus, in 
his three varieties of mould, was founded on their 
solubility or insolubility, ]j^ water and by alkalies. 
The author of these pages, while engaged in re- 
searches upon the action of mordants, and of cow- 
dung, in calico printing, began in 1833, before he 
had met with the work of Berzelius, had also no- 
ticed this marked distinction, and several other new 
and important facts relating to what he then called, 
from its analogies, ulmin. For all practical pur- 
poses, the distinction was enough. When a few 
years after, his attention was accidentally called to 
soil, the name of Berzelius, geine, was given by 
him to the whole organic matter of mould, or hu- 
mus, and that matter was also, as a convenient 
practical division, separated into soluble and insolu- 
ble, including the various geic salts, which he de- 
tected in soil. In the edition of Berzelius, above 
cited, two other organic compounds are noticed, as 
being among the general products of putrefaction, 
traces of which Berzelius noticed in soil. These 
were called crenic and apocrenic acids, from 
" Arrewe," Greek, for fountain, having been first de- 
tected in spring water. The French for spring, 
being " source^'''' as if to make confusion worse con- 
founded, the French translator of Mitscherlich, 
called these "sourcic and oxygenated sourcic acid." 
The presence of nitrogen was detected by Ber- 
zelius, in crenic and apocrenic acid. This suffi- 
ciently distinguished them from geine, extract of, 
and carbonaceous mould. Though these acids 
were detected after the name of geine had been ap- 
plied, yet the presence of nitrogen in these, would 
at once have led Berzelius to examine geine anew, 



72 HISTORY OF GEINE. 

if he had any suspicion that it contained that ele- 
ment, or that he had mistaken the chemical nature 
of that substance. Unless we suppose, with Ras- 
pail, that nitrogen in these acids, exists, and acts 
only as he supposes it dues in gluten, as an acci- 
dent, or as an ammoniacal salt, it cannot be sup- 
posed that geine and these acids are identical, or 
can ever pass into each other. Nor has the pro- 
gress of chemical discovery led to the abandonment 
of geine as a distinct principle. The existence of 
crenic and apocrenic acids, is not admitted, by some 
of the highest authorities of the day, the justly cele- 
brated Liebig, and the no less expert and astute 
Graham, of the London University. Both admit, 
however, of ulmic acid and ulmin. Malaguti had 
procured, by boiling sugar with dilute acid, ulmic 
acid in distinct crystals. By long boiling in water, 
it is converted into ulmin, losing its solubility in al- 
kali, without any change of composition. 

The existence of these principles is recognized in 
the seventh edition of Turner's Chemistry, edited 
by Liebig and Gregory. The organic part, under 
the eye of Liebig, may be supposed to contain only 
well established chemical facts, and among these 
the results of Malaguti are given, under the names 
of sacchulmin and sacchulmic acid — the one is so- 
luble, the other insoluble, in alkali ; their constitu- 
tion identical, and Boullay's analysis of ulmic acid 
is cited to establish their constitution. The whole 
doctrine of naming the elements of soil may be 
tabulated. 



HISTORY OF GEINE. 



73 



The Organic Elements of Mould,, or Humus^ hy 
Berzelius's division. 



1832. 
1. Extract of Mould, 



2. Geine, 



3. Carbon, mould, . 

4. Crenic acid, .... 

5. Apocrenic, 



1840. 
1 . Extract of Mould, 



2. Humic acid, . . 

3. Humin, 

4. Crenic acid, . . 

5. Apocrenic acid 



Vegetable extract of 
authors, apotheme of 
Berzelius. 

Ulmic of Boullay and 
others, sacchuimic of 
Liebig. 

Ulmin of authors, sac- 
chulniin of Liebig. 

Not admitted by Lie- 
big and Graham 5 ad- 
mitted by most others 



It becomes, therefore, a question whether the 
term geine, is not the only proper term to be re- 
tained, appUcable to the various forms found in soil ; 
and its distinction into soluble and insoluble, well 
founded, for all practical purposes .? This question 
may be answered by a reference to the analysis of 
geine. It includes not only that, so called in 1832, 
by Berzelius, the equivalent of which, by the table, 
is ulmic and humic acid, but also, all the three 
forms, except the nitrogenous. On this subject, 
during the imperfect state of organic analysis ten 
years ago, there may have been room for doubt ; 
especially when the most consummate organic an- 
alyst of the age, Liebig, asserts that it is exceeding- 
ly difficult to estimate quantities, less than one half 
per cent. Even now, when the results of the most 
expert analysts, have thrown a shade of doubt over 
the determination of the true proportion of carbon, 
in carbonic acid, a proportion for so ni^ny years, 
considered one of the best established facts of 
chemistry, — it may be doubted whether later anal- 
yses of geine, approach nearer practical truth than 
those executed, almost in the infancy of the science. 
The constitution of geine as determined by Boullay 



74 HISTORY OF GEINE. 

and Malaguti, admitted by all, to be worthy of con- 
fidence, is thus stated : — 



P. Boullay, (Thomson) 

" jr. (Lassaigne) 
Malaguti, (Dumas) 



4 



Carbon. 


Hydrogen. 


Oxygen. 


56-7 


4-8 


38-50 


57-64 


4-70 


37-56 


57-48 


4-76 


37-06 



Average, 57-30 475 37-70 

But it may be said, that these refer only to the 
artificial productions. They may be quite other 
compounds, from that found in soil. Let us then 
place the analysis of geine of soil, as determined by 
Sprengel, side by side, with the average, above 
stated. This result of Sprengel, is given in Ber- 
zelius's " system" of 1832. 

Geine of Soil. Artificial Geine, 

Carbon, 58- 57-30 

Hydrogen, 2-10 4-75 

Oxygen, 39-9 37-70 

The difference, it has been suggested, is owing 
*' to the difficulty of procuring" geine, " pure, from 
soil." But the analyses of mould or geine, taken 
from decayed trees, show also, great differences. 
The process of decay, when air is freely admitted, 
combines a portion of the oxygen of air, with the 
hydrogen of the geine ; the whole of the hydrogen 
is thus removed as water, while the oxygen of the 
geine, combining with the carbon, escapes as car- 
bonic acid.* There is not enough oxygen to convert 
all the carbon ; hence, a portion remains. But if 
water, be present, during decay, and the air par- 
tially excluded, then, a j)ortion of water yields oxy- 
gen to the carbon. In order to make correct com- 
parative analyses, the substances should each have 



HISTORY OF GEINE. 75 

proceeded to the same point of decay, and who 
may determine that ? The geine of soil appears to 
have been favorably situated for the abstraction of 
its hydrogen, or in other words, it has formed water 
faster than carbonic acid. Still the proportions are 
so near those of the artificial, that it seems difficult 
to believe, that when these are so near alike, that 
their agricultural effects would not be identical. 

While some deny the separate existence of crenic 
and apocrenic acids, and others assert, that they 
are identical with geine, they may be included in 
that ; or excluding these, geine seems to be allow- 
ed'on all sides, and under its several forms to be 
identically the same chemical substance, differing 
chiefly by its being soluble or insoluble, in alkali or 
water. The name and division adopted by the au- 
thor, are not therefore inapplicable to the organic 
part of soil, whether the term geine be used gener— 
ically or specifically, whether we " speak agricul- 
turally or chemically." Still, the author is quite 
indifferent by what name the organic matter of soil 
is called, and perhaps he may be allowed to quote his 
remarks on this subject, as published in the third re- 
port on the agriculture of Massachusetts, by Mr. 
Colman, in 1838 : " Whether we consider this as a 
simple substance or composed of several others 
called crenic, apocrenic, puteanic, ulmic acids, 
glairin, apotheme, extract, humus or mould, agri- 
culture ever has and probably ever will, consider it 
one and the same thing, requiring always sim- 
ilar treatment to produce it ; similar treatment to 
render it an effectual manure. It is the end of all 
compost heaps, to produce soluble geine, no mat- 
ter how compound our qjiemistry may teach this 
substance to beJ' 

Unless, therefore, better reasons for a change of 
4 



1^ HISTORY OF GEINE. 

name are offered, than have yet appeared, the name 
geine will be retained. 

During the last two or three years, Mulder, in 
whose analytical tact, all chemists place the utmost 
confidence, has examined the various forms of non- 
nitrogenous geine. He is now publishing the elab- 
orate results of his long labor. The following 
sketch of these, which shed such a new light over 
this complicated subject, is chiefly drawn from Ber- 
zelius's Report for 1841, in which he speaks of 
them in high praise. While it will be seen that 
Mulder refers to the various forms of geine, under 
names used by Berzelius, he confirms the fact, that 
their great difference depends upon their being sol- 
uble or insoluble in alkalies, and has added a crowd 
of new facts, which connect all the forms in a 
beautiful and consistent manner. Stein had already, 
by repeating the experiments of Malaguti, arrived 
at products, whose analytical results, differed from 
Malaguti's. Mulder, repeating the process of boil- 
ing sugar with weak acid, and examining the pro- 
duct, has confirmed Stein's results, and also what 
has been advanced, that the forms of geine, thus 
produced, are, as Malaguti had observed iden- 
tical in composition ; {^nd has shown, that the vari- 
ous forms, depend on the circumstances of the 
manipulation. 

The catalytic action of weak acid, boiled upon 
sugar, produces first, ulmin, and ulmic acid. It is 
remarkable that these products are not formed in 
vacuo. This is due, not to the want of oxygen, 
but to the want of pressure. Boiled, under the 
pressure pf hydrogen, or nitrogen gas, ulmin audits 
acid are produced. The products formed from sugar 
and weak acids, ^n a vacuum, are humin, and hu- 
mic acid Ulmin, and ulmic acid &e therefore the 



HISTORY OF GEINE, 



^ 



primary products of this action in air or under pres- 
sure. If these are separated and again boiled with 
weak acid, in contact with air, they are changed 
into humin, and humic acid. These are therefore 
secondary products. Humin, and humic acid, are 
produced directly, by allowing a free, and abund- 
ant access of air. Ulmin, and ulmic acid, are then 
rapidly transformed to humin, and humic acid. 
Strong acid also hastens this transformation, but at 
the same time, changes humic acid to humin. For- 
mic acid is always produced, and distils off during 
the process ; and also two other new acids. The 
discoverer of one, was Peligot, in 1838, which Mul- 
der now calls glucic acid, and he himself has add- 
ed another, produced from this, which is called apo- 
glucic acid. Passing over these, it is difficult to 
procure the other acids, and neutral bodies free 
from mixture. Whatever may be the quantity of 
sugar, or the circumstances of the manipulation, it 
is impossible to convert more than one-fifth of the 
sugar into ulmin, and ulmic, and humin, and humic 
acid. The other four-fifths are changed into for- 
mic, glucic, and apoglucic acids. 

Having effected the change of one-fifth of the 
sugar, the ulmic and humic acids are separated 
from ulmin and humin, by potash. Ammonia 
cannot be used for this purpose. The reason will 
appear in the sequel. Having separated the sev- 
eral substances, their analysis presents the follow- 
ing results. The proportion, per cent., the author 
has deduced for the greater part, from Mulder's 
formulae. What a chemical formula is, will be 
readily understood from (55). A formula is mere- 
ly the true expression of an analysis, by the num- 
ber of combining proportions. It presents to the 
eye at once, tlie constitution of any compound, and 



78 HISTORY OF GEINE. 

affords a readier mode of comparing several bodies 
like-constituted, than does the proportion per 100 
parts. That is added, for those, whose taste may- 
have led them to omit the details. (55.) 

But it may here be stated, that C stands for car- 
bon, H hydrogen, O oxygen. Am. ammonia, a com- 
pound of 3 hydrogen, and 1 nitrogen ; and Aq. 
stands for water (aqua), a compound of 1 of hydro- 
gen, and 1 of oxygen ; 2 aq. is 2 water. 

Table of Composition of TJhnin^ 8fC. 

Per 100 parts. 
Formulce. Carbon. HycVgn. Oxygen. 

Ulmin, C40 H16 0^4 65-30 4-30 30-40 

Ulmic acid, C^o hi^ 0^2 68-S5 4-23 26-82 

Humin, C40 Ri^ O^^ 64-67 4-32 3101 

Humic acid, C40 H12 012 69-25 3-42 27-33 

It is thus seen, that ulmic and humic acid, dif- 
fer from ulmin and humin, by containing the first 
2, and the second, 3 atoms of the elements of water, 
more than the neutral bodies, from which they are 
formed. Ulmic and humic acids above, are sup- 
posed to be perfectly dry. Each may combine 
with a definite proportion of water, forming hydra- 
ted acids. In this case, they contain the same ab- 
solute and relative number of the same elements as 
do ulmin and humin. They are thus said to be 
isomeric with them. The ,composition of the hy- 
drated acids is — 

Ulmic, C^O HH 0^2 _^2 aq. or 2 hydro, and 2 oxyg. 
HumicC^O H12 012 ^_3aq. or3 " 3 " 

These acids combine with bases. If -these acids 
are dissolved by ammonia, and precipitated by an 
acid, they fall combined with ammonia. Ulmate 
of ammonia, precipitated by metallic salts, forms 
double salts of ammonia and a metallic oxide. The 
composition of these salts of ammonia, is — 



HISTORY OF GEINE. 79 

Ulmate of ammonia, C40 UU 0^2 -}- am. -\-2 aq. 
Humate " C^o H12 012 ^ am. -\-S aq. 

Or per cent. Curb. Hyd. Oxy. Nitrog. 

Ulmate of ammonia, 64-75 5-06 26-92 3-97 
Humate " 64-58 422 2746 374 

Mulder, having thus shown the composition of 
these artificial products, proceeds to trace similar 
natural products in peat, decayed wood, and soil. 
Here his labors have a direct bearing on agricul- 
ture. He points out their relation with those above, 
in so clear and masterly a manner, that it is impos- 
sible not to believe, that in agriculture, the artificial 
and natural products would produce like effects. 
In the natural formation of these substances, Mul- 
der remarks generally, that during decay, without 
free access of air, ulmin and ulmic acid are formed, 
as in peat of a brown color, while, as in black peats 
with free access of air, humin and humic acids are 
produced from the primary products. This agrees 
with his experiments, in air and a vacuum. Peat 
of a brown color, having been treated with alcohol 
to remove all resinous matter, was then treated 
with carbonate of soda. All the soluble matter was 
thus extracted, that is, the ulmic acid. The insol- 
uble geine, is ulmin. The soluble, precipitated, 
has all the characters of the ulmic acid of sugar. 
It differs only in this, it may not be heated above 
140° Fahrenheit, without decomposition, and then 
produces formic acid, and water. Sugar-ulmic 
acid, undergoes this change at 195° F. Humic 
acid was prepared by a similar process, from black 
peat. It has all the external characters of sugar- 
humic acid. It differs by containing ammonia. Its 
soda solution, precipitated by muriatic acid, gave 
a precipitate containing one atom of humic acid, to 
one atom of ammonia. It loses no water at 140® F. 



80 HISTORY OF GEINE. 

at about 180*^ it evolves ammonia ; at 195° acetic 
acid. Humic acid was also prepared from the 
black mould of an old white willow, by a similar 
process as above. It suffers no change below 150° 
and at 163® it evolves water and acetic acid. Di- 
gested with caustic potash, it evolves ammonia. 
Continuing this digestion for twelve hours, and then 
precipitating the humic acid, it is found converted 
into ulmate of ammonia, with two portions of acid. 
It is a biulmate of ammonia, similar to that from 
peat. If digested with carbonate of soda, the pro- 
duct then is biulmate of ammonia, like that from 
sugar. Soil was treated by Mulder, first, with boil- 
ing alcohol, then with water, then with carbonate 
of soda, and the acids precipitated as usual, by 
muriatic acid. These precipitates were with diffi- 
culty obtained pure. They were repeatedly wash- 
ed in cold water, dried, and again heated with al- 
cohol, to remove every trace of crenic and apo- 
crenic acid. This care of Mulder, to separate 
crenic and apocrenic acid from his geine, is new 
evidence that the last is not a compound of these 
acids. These being removed, the precipitates were 
again dried, as in fact, were all the products above 
described at 140° F. They were then analyzed. 
It is remarkable, that all these products are ammo- 
niacal combinations. It is a combination, net as a 
salt, in which case, the geine of soil would be at 
once soluble in water, but a compound of humin 
and ulmin, or of their acids with ammonia, prob- 
ably like the compounds of ammonia, with sul- 
phates, and other salts. The whole may be best 
presented in a table, and that these natural, may be 
at once compared with the artificial products, these 
are also included. 



HISTORY OF GEINE. 



81 



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82 HISTORY OF GEINE. 

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HISTORY OF GEINE. 83 

These are beautiful and valuable results. Exe- 
cuted by one of the great masters in organic anal- 
ysis, they show a wonderful coincidence between 
the artificial and natural products. This has a di- 
rect connexion with agriculture. The source of 
the nitrogen of plants, depends upon these com- 
pounds of ammonia with the geine of soil. The 
composition of that substance shows, that by mak- 
ing it soluble, the farmer commands the same ben- 
eficial effects, which may be produced by nitre. 
But the researches of Mulder do not terminate with 
the analyses. He has examined the compounds 
which these forms of geine produce with other acids, 
particularly with muriatic and nitric. The com- 
pound of nitric and humic acid, is called nitro- 
humic ; ulmin and lilmic, humin and humic acid, 
are decomposed by weak nitric acid. They are 
converted by gentle heat, immediately into a rust 
colored powder, and by prolonged action evolve 
oxalic and formic acids and nitrate of ammonia. 
Nitro-humic acid, the rusty brown powder, above, 
is soluble in water. Alkalies evolve ammonia from 
it. Its analysis affords — 

C48 1116 026 N2 : or per cent. 

Carbon. Hydrogen. O-rygen. Nitrogen. 

55-43 3-49 3810 2.98. 

It is highly probable, that this product is con- 
nected with the action of nitrates, or saltpetre in 
agriculture. All these products, observes Berzeli- 
us, are connected by an unknown thread. These 
black and almost insoluble acids, have a very weak 
saturating power, in comparison with their oxy- 
gen. This last exceeds that of the base, by 10, 12, 
or 14 times. Hence, Berzelius suggests, that all 
these organic acids may have a composition, anal- 



84 HISTORY OF GEINE. 

ogous to sulpho-benzoic acid. This last is compos- 
ed of benzoin and sulphuric acid, which determines 
the saturating power of sulphobenzoic acid. Hence 
if these forms of geine, are united to an organic 
acid, which acts like the acid in sulpho-benzoic, 
they may have an analogous composition. 

Notwithstanding the objections raised by Berze- 
lius, founded upon a want of correspondence be- 
tween the oxygen and saturating power of these 
forms of geine, they are probably, modifications of 
one principle, differing not so much in their phys- 
ical properties, as do fibrine, aibumine, and caseine, 
or flesh, white of egg, and curd of milk. These are 
identical in composition, modifications of a common 
principle to which the name, proteine, is given by 
Mulder, its discoverer. It is%ot among the least 
curious of his results, that proteine is, by weak 
acids, changed into humate of ammonia, its acid 
being perfectly identical with that from sugar. In 
1838, Prof. Hitchcock, in his report, published the 
following extract from one^ of the author's letters, 
when speaking of geine as the product chiefly of 
vegetable matter, it was added : " Animal sub- 
stances afford a similar product, containing nitro- 
gen." The author supposed at that time, that the 
nitrogen in geine was of animal origin ; but since, 
it has been proved, that proteine is equally derived 
from vegetables and animals, the results of its de- 
composition by Mulder, leave no doubt, that the 
proteine of vegetables is the source of the ammoni- 
acal compounds of geine, found in soil. That nei- 
ther Mulder nor Berzelius, have the slightest doubt, 
that these ammoniacal compounds, are wholly dis- 
tinct from crenic and apocrenic acid, is evident 
from the care of Mulder, to separate these last from 
the soil, and from the total silence of Berzelius, 



HISTORY OF GEINE. 85 

respecting any mistake he may have been suppos- 
ed to commit, by confounding geine with them. 

New facts are wanting. The several organic 
principles of soil are probably oxides of a peculiar 
base or radical, to whose several modifications, the 
term geine, may like the term proteine, be applied- 
These modifications, may be found, even when ful- 
ly known, to affect the practice of agriculture, as 
little, as did the true chemistry of oil and fat, affect 
soap making. 



86 ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 



CHAPTER V. 

OF THE MUTUAL ACTION OF THE OR- 

.GANIC AND INORGANIC ELEMENTS 

OF SOIL. 

128. In agriculture, little and seemingly unim- 
portant discoveries are valuable. Nothing is to be 
despised, which may lead to a rational and true the- 
ory of agriculture ; this only can lead to successful 
practice. Practice, founded on sound principles, 
can be taught only by a knowledge of the manner 
how, the elements of soil affect each other, and 
vegetation. This knowledge cannot be obtained 
without the application of theoretical opinions. The 
opinions of merely scientific men, may be wholly 
theoretical ; but what is science ? 

It is, says Davy, "refined common sense, the 
substitution of rational practice, for unsound preju- 
dice." 

In no department of human industry, is there so 
great a demand for the union of theory and prac- 
tice, as in agriculture. The book farmer and the 
practical farmer, must now shake hands. They 
have been too long wrestling, and trying to get 
each other down, at arms' length, and now grap- 
pling in side-hug, they find the closer the embrace, 
the longer they stand. So it should be, theory and 
practice should mutually support each other. 



ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 87 

129. The theoretical and the practical farmer 
aim at one common object. The latter is employ- 
ing certain means to effect certain ends ; the former 
unfolds the laws of nature, which limit and control 
the operations which are performed to effect that 
end. Theory may teach a rational and successful 
practice ; this last may lead to a rational theory. 
But without a knowledge of the elements of soil, 
and of their mutual action, which is to be learned 
from chemistry only, the practical application of 
science to agriculture, is but the dream of enthu- 
siasts. 

130. How do the elements of soil act.? The an- 
swer involves two important considerations. 1st. 
The mutual chemical action of the elements of soil, 
their organic and inorganic parts on each other ; 
and 2d. This action, as influenced and modified, 
by the presence of living, growing plants. 

131. The elements of soil, are silicates, salts and 
geine. The silicates, as such, have no tendency to 
react on each other. These ace gradually decom- 
posed by the action of the air. The great agent in 
this action is its carbonic acid, which gradually 
combines with the alkaline base of the silicates, and 
tbe potash, and soda, are converted into soluble 
salts, while the silex and alumina remain. 

132. The result of this action is, that the land 
becomes gradually more clayey and tenacious ; 
while the alkaline bases, carried away by drainage 
or filtration, enter brooks and rivers, and are finally 
found in sea water. The potash of the ocean, arises 
from the decomposition of rocks and soil. This 
action though very marked on felspar, is compara- 
tively nothing except on the naked and exposed 
surface of rocks. Soil suffers but little from this 



88 ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 

cause. The silicates of soil may be considered as 
stationary. 

133. If the class, salts, be now introduced, those 
only which act upon silicates by mutual decompo- 
sition are earthy carbonates. The silicic acid acts 
on the lime, forming silicate of lime, while the car- 
bonic acid, now let loose, acts as such upon other 
silicates, and eliminates or frees the alkaline bases. 
Let it be supposed that there is silicate of alumina, 
that is clay, or silicate of potash and alumina in the 
soil. Let carbonate of lime, that is marble, and 
slacked lime, shells, &c., be added to the soil. The 
result is, that slowly but surely, chemical action 
takes place, the silicic acid pulling one way and the 
carbonic acid another, the lime is changed to sili- 
cate of lime, and the carbonic acid escapes, and 
now in its turn acts upon silicates as did carbonic 
acid of air. The alumina remains, the soil becomes 
more clayey. Thus sands by liming are amended. ^ 

134. This principle, of the action of carbonates, ^ 
unravels the mysterious action of a vast variety of ^ 
substances, which appear to be very inert and inef- 
ficient. It must be remembered, that the action of 
silicates and salts is alone under consideration, unin- 
fluenced by the presence of geine or plants. That 
action in its simplest form constitutes the following, 
which may be laid down as the ninth principle of 
agricultural chemistry, carbonic acid',* and the \o 

CARBONATES, DECOMPOSE THE EARTHY, ALKALINE, 
AND METALLIC SILICATES OF SOIL. 

135. The result is, that the potash, soda, lime, 
magnesia, alumina, and metallic oxides are set free, 
and where silicate of alumina exists, the soil be- 
comes more clayey, while the carbonic acid again 
acts upon silicates of alkalies and forms carbonates / 
of alkalies. A clue is thus given to the action of 



ACTION OF CARBONATES IN SOIL. 89 

peat ashes, or coal ashes in amending a sandy soil. 
These ashes act by their carbonate of lime as above 
stated, freeing the alkah of the siUcate of potash. 

136. Hitherto, the action of the inorganic ele- 
ments has been explained, uninfluenced by the or- 
ganic or geine. Referring to the properties of this 
element, it will be recollected, that this is soluble 
or insoluble, that it combines with alkalies, earths, 
and metals. This element exerts a twofold action. 
1st. The geine combines with the potash, soda, lime, 

t alumina, magnesia, which have been let loose by 
the action of carbonic acid, and of carbonates, and 
forms geic salts or geates, while the carbonic acid 
which may be let loose from any carbonate of lime, 
acting upon these geic salts, forms super-geates, 
which readily dissolve. It is thus evident, that geine 
exerts an important and powerful influence upon 
soil. It is the agent, prepared by nature, to dis- 
solve the earthy constituents of soil, rendering them 
so soluble, that they become fit for food, or con- 
stituents of plants. 

2d. The free alkalies, produced as has been de- 
scribed by the influence of carbonic acid, and car- 
bonates act on geine. They render this soluble. 
The curious and important fact, that a small quan- 
tity of alkali, renders an indefinite quantity of geine 
■•^ soluble, has been noticed (117); and it may now 
be added, that probably all the alkaline earths, and 
oxide of iron and manganese possess this power of 
converting vegetable fibre into geine. This efl^ect 
has long been known to be produced by potash and 
lime. These hasten decay; and next in powe^to 
lime, in this singular process, is alumina, then oxide 
of iron, in passing from a lower to a higher state 
of oxidation. 

137. This remarkable process, this power, ener- 



90 CATALYSIS, OR ACTION OF PRESEIsCE. 

gy, function, influence, property, called by whatso- 
ever name it may be, which is thus exerted, by the 
elements of silicates upon vegetable fibre, and in- 
soluble geine ; and the power of developing acid 
properties in that principle, is intimately connected 
with the action of growing plants upon soil. The 
joint effect of organic and inorganic elements of 
soil and plants, may be better understood by advert- 
ing to the probable cause of this property of earths, 
alkalies and oxides ; though in the present state of 
science this cause may be apprehended only by 
giving it a name, which, while it arranges many 
facts under one view only, hides as deep, the source 
of this classification. The cause of this effect, of 
alkalies, upon geine, is to be sought in that power, 
which has been denominated catalysis, and which 
the French designate as the action of presence. 
That is, the mere presence of a body, influences 
the nature of a second body, so as wholly to change 
its properties. It causes the elements of organic 
compounds to enter into new arrangements, by 
Avhich they produce a totally different substance. 
The catalytic body, the present body, the chang- 
ing body itself, suffers no change, except, perhaps, 
in some cases of ferments, whose activity depends 
upon their being in a state of decomposition, while 
the changed body loses nothing of its substance. 
It often gains oxygen and hydrogen, or the ele- 
ments of water. For example, starch is converted 
into sugar by oil of vitriol. The acid suffers no 
change. It acts by catalysis, and converts the 
starch to sugar, simply by the addition of water, or 
its elements. So the peculiar principle found near 
the eye of the potato, converts starch first into gum, 
called dextrine, and then converts this into sugar of 
starch. So malt, by its gluten, converts starch in- 



CATALYSIS OF LIFE. 91 

to sugar in the process of brewing beer. But the 
effect of this action, may not be confined to organic 
compounds only. It has lately been extended, by 
an acute German chemist, to all chemical changes ; 
and it has been maintained that all chemical de- 
composition takes place in obedience only to a third 
substance, acting by its presence. Hence, this ex- 
tension of the principle, will allow the decomposi- 
tion of the mineral elements of soil, to be attribut- 
ed to the catalytic action of the plant. 

138. Having considered the action of the organ- 
ic and inorganic elements of soil upon each other, 
it is seen, that though great, this action would be 
but very little, in centuries. The geine itself, 
would be dissipated in air, were it not that by this 
provision, it is combined with the earthy part of 
the soil, and there retained for the use of plants, 
which may grow near it. 

139. Let plants be grown in the soil, whose ac- 
tion has been considered. This introduces life 
into the process, and it gives life to all around it. 
It is not pretended to explain what the action of life 
is. It has many relations with chemical processes. 
By the refined chemistry of the present day, many 
products are formed, which have been usually, and 
in fact, are now considered products of living ac- 
tion only ; the peculiar product of life, urea, is 
formed artificially ; so of other products, and out of 
carbon, nitrogen, and water, may be formed as 
many, and as complex products as are ever elabo- 
rated by a living process ; yet, life is not a chem- 
ical process, and were it attempted to explain how, 
out of the four simple elements, carbon, hydrogen, 
oxygen, and nitrogen, all the variety of vegetable 
products are formed, it might be said that life is a 
catalytic power. The vital principle by its pres- 



9d 



CATALYSIS OF LIFE. 



ence, impresses the same power on the food we 
take, that the peculiar principle in malt and in po- 
tato, called diastase, impresses on starch. It mere- 
ly by its presence, gives to the elements power to 
enter into new combinations, and then these combi- 
nations occur in obedience only to the well known, 
established, eternal laws of chemical affinity. 

140. So too, the presence of a growing plant, of 
the root, of a seed, where life is, impresses, on the 
soil, both on the organic and inorganic elements, 
power to enter into new arrangements. The soil, 
then, is not external to the plants ; so far as life is 
concerned, it is as much internal as if the plant had 
a mouth and stomach, through, and into which the 
soil might be fed. 

141. Call this power life, electricity, galvanism, 
or by any other name, still the great fact, that the 
mere presence of a living, growing plant in soil, in 
one year effects a greater amount of its decompo- 
sition, than all atmospheric influences, in many 
years, is one of the very highest- interest, in a prac- 
tical view. It is, perhaps, of more value than all 
the other actions which have been considered. 

142. It is this decomposing action of living 
plants, on the inorganic elements of soil, which af- 
fords a reasonable explanation of the action of salts 
in agriculture. The catalytic power of life dissoci- 
ates the elements of salts. They enter into new 
combinations. The base and the acid, are sepa- 
rated by the action of the living plant. 

143. On no subject in agriculture, are opinions 
more divided, than on the manner, how salts or 
mineral manures act. Their amount in soil is 
small. That is soon exhausted. They cannot be 
artificially supplied, in excess, without inducing 
very serious injury, and in fact, often produce bar- 



'•\ ACTION OF SALTS OR MINERAL MANURES. 93 

renness ; yet are often decidedly beneficial. It is 
not less difficult to account for the good, than for 
bad effects of salts. Among all the variety of sub- 
stances acting as salts, a distinct theory is generally 
framed and adopted for each. If any attempt h.as 
been made to arrange all the facts relating to this 
subject, it has ended in this that they are stimulants. 
They are to the plants, what condiments are to the 
food of man. This may do veiy well as an illus- 
tration, and it has been elsewhere said, that " the 
soil is the plate, the geine the food, the salt the 
seasoning." 

144. This leads to no practical result, except it 
be this, that if salts are seasoning, like the season- 
ing of our food, they must be used sparingly. Some 
general law is wanting, which shall at once, ac- 
count for the effects of salts, and while it points 
out how so very minute a portion as the four-hund- 
redth part of one per cent, of the soil produces un- 
questionably good effects, one per cent, will be in- 
jurious. Some general principle is wanted, which 
will enable the farmer to say what the action of a 
salt will be ; and whether he may apply one, or 
less than one per cent, of it, without risking his 
crop. 

145. Such a general principle, can be deduced 
from the know^n chemical action of the elements of 
soil, aided by the living plants, upon each other. 
It is this tenth principle of agricultural chemistry, 

THE BASE OF ALL SALTS, ACTS EVER THE SAME IN 
AGRICULTURE. PECULIARITY OF ACTION DEPENDS 
ON THE ACID OF THE SALT. 

146. Forget, reader, all other principles which 
have been presented to you. Banish from your 
mind, if you will, all that has been said, on the ori- 
gin and nature of soil. Put it down, all, all to the 



94 ACTION OF SALTS. 

account of book farming. Let it be branded all as 
theory, and that too as the worst of theories, theory 
fruitless, a goodly blossom bearing no fruit, a Dead 
Sea apple ; but do not condemn the principle now 
enunciated. Let that stand alone, by itself, for it- 
self. In all its length and breadth, it is the great 
practical principle of agricultural chemistry. It 
opens veins, rich in results, more precious than 
mines of gold. 

147. The action of salts in agriculture, is to be 
regarded in a twofold light. First, a large propor- 
tion of salts is found in plants, composed of alkalies 
and alkaline bases of earths, united to a mineral 
acid, such as sulphuric, muriatic, phosphoric. These 
salts are taken up by the roots of plants when dis- 
solved in water, and thus form a constituent of veg- 
etables. Secondly, a large quantity of alkali and 
alkaline earths, is united in plants, with a vegetable 
acid. In this case, the salts of the soil, have been 
decomposed by the living plant. What is the con- 
sequence ? The base, if alkah, lime, alumina, 
magnesia, iron, acts upon geine, rendering that sol- 
uble, and it is then taken up as such, or it forms an 
alkalhie or earthy, or metallic geate, which enter- 
ing the plant as such, is there decomposed by the 
vegetable acid produced in the living plant ; while 
the acid of the salt thus let loose in the soil, acting 
on the silicates, forms new salts, which in their 
turn, play a similar part to that produced by the 
original salt. 

148. The effect of this action of salts is, that 
they continually reproduce themselves. The effect 
may be illustrated by yeast, which added to dough, 
begets a new portion of the fermenting principle, 
which again added to new dough, still begets new 
leaven, and this without end. It is not to be under- 



\ 



ACTION OF SALTS. 95 



stood, from this illustration, that the action of salts 
is fermentation. 

149. But let this action be farther illustrated ; 
suppose there is added a salt, composed of muriatic 
acid and soda, that is common salt, to the soil. By 
the action of the living plant, this is decomposed. 
Its soda or base, then acts on geine. If this has 
been long in an insoluble, and perfectly useless 
condition, it is now rendered soluble, and hence 
supplies plants with food. A very marked and de- 
cided effect is perceived from applying a small 
quantity per acre, of a salt, which certainly of 
itself, contains no nutriment for plants. 

150. The effects here produced, may be due to 
the small quantity of alkali, acting on an indefinite 
quantity of geine ; but the effect so often observed, 
of the minute quantity of salts, say one-hundredth 
of one per cent, of the soil, seems hardly compati- 
ble with the explanation. So far as it goes, this is 
its action ; but very probably the quantity of alkali 
in the salt sown, is taken up as a geic salt, and im- 
mediately carried into the plants. The base then 
is withdrawn, yet the action continues. It contin- 
ues through the whole time the fruit is forming. 
Some other source, therefore, of the permanence 
of this action must be sought. That is due to the 
acid constituent of the salt. That, when the plant 
decomposed the salts, was let loose and now acts 
on the silicates of the soil. It decomposes these, 
uniting first with the alkalies, and thus reproducing 
itself. It is again decomposed by the growing plant. 
The same round of action continues. Suppose all 
this had been witnessed on a worn out, almost bar- 
ren field. It is conducted at once, that there is 
some peculiar virtue in the salt applied, that it is of 
itself food, or manure ; whereas the whole action is 



96 ACTION OF SALTS. 

in obedience to a general law applicable to all salts. 

151. Suppose plaster or gypsum has been ap- 
plied ; the effects of a bushel of plaster per acre, or 
even the one four-hundredth part of one per cent, 
of the^soil produces effects on alluvial land, which 
show its good results, as far as eye can reach. It 
seems almost incredible, that so minute a portion 
of a mineral can act at all, yet how beautifully is 
this result explained, by the principle, that plants 
decompose, first, this salt; the lime, for plaster is a 
sulphate of lime, then acts on geine, which is thus 
rendered soluble ; while the acid, the oil of vitriol 
or sulphuric acid, immediately acts on silicates. If 
silicates of alkali exist in the soil, we have now 
changed sulphate of lime for an alkaline sulphate, 
and if silicate of lime is also present, the potash or 
alkali, having been exhausted, plaster of Paris is 
formed anew. So long as there is in the soil or- 
ganic matter, this action continues, and will con- 
tinue till the plant has gradually withdrawn for its 
own use, the acid of the salt which was introduced. 

152. Fertility depends wholly on salts and geine. 
Without the last there is no fruit formed ; without 
the salts the geine is locked up, is insoluble. Con- 
sider now the application of this principle, that the 
base of the salts acts always in one uniform way, 
its action is wholly upon geine ; that the acid of 
salts, acts upon silicates. Apply this principle to 
all mineral manures, as they are called. They are 
all connected by one common mode of action of 
their base. There is no speculation, there is no 
mysteiy, as to the mode how they act. The ef- 
fect produced by such wonderfully minute quanti- 
ties is no longer astonishing. It is no more won- 
derful than that leaven should make dough rise ; it 
is even less mysterious. 



ACTION OF SALTS. 97 

153. Apply this principle to acids, which have 
sometimes been used. Sprinkle a small portion of 
oil of vitriol on the soil ; supposing no free base 
present, the silicates are decomposed by the oil of 
vitriol, and sulphates of alkalies, and alkaline earths 
are formed. These new formed salts are, in their 
turn, decomposed by the living plants ; and the ac- 
tion on geine commences, as has been explained. 

154. Consider how salts and geine are linked. 
It is at once seen how essential to the action of 
salts is the presence of organic matter, or geine in 
the soil. It is the want of a principle like that 
which has been stated, which has led to a waste of 
time and money, in applying mineral manures, to 
worn out and barren soil. Whereas, the principle 
(145) leads to the application of both salts and 
geine. The salts alone, would be useless. Their 
first effect in either case, would be the same 
on silicates ; but with geine, this action^ like fer- 
mentation, goes on, begetting new salts; without it, 
this action ceases after the first chemical changes 
have occurred. In the first case, it goes on. In 
the second, it stops. 

155. Salts without geine, act only on silicates of 
the soil. If now, these silicates contain any portion 
of aqueous rock, (11) thev usually contain also, 
distinct traces of organic matter. This matter is 
due for the most part, to the geine, held in solution 
in the water, from Vv^hich the rocks were deposited. 
It is certainly within the bounds, not only of a chem- 
ical possibility, but of a high degree of probability, 
that the carbon under the influence of growing 
plants, may unite with oxygen or hydrogen, that is, 
with the elements of water, and form thus food for 
plants. Hence, on such soil, the mere application 
of salts, or of mineral manures, yea, and does pro- 



96 ACTION OF SALTS. 

duce marked and wonderful effects. This would 
be the effect of salts, applied to soil produced by 
the decomposition of slate ; even gneiss soil, which 
occurs occasionally in extensive patches, would be 
benefitted, but much less by such application. But 
such soil forms an exception, both to the general 
law, which has been stated, of the uniformity of 
mineral composition, and to the necessity of apply- 
ing salts and geine in conjunction. These nmnarks 
may explain a seemingly possible anomaly to the 
principle, that the base of all salts acts in one uni- 
form manner upon geine, and that peculiarities of 
action depend on the acid of the salt. The effects 
of the first part of this proposition have been ex- 
plained ; the effect of the second, is now to be con- 
sidered. 

156. Perhaps no principle in agriculture, is bet- 
ter established than that an excess of any salt in the 
usual acceptation of that term, is a cause of bar- 
renness. Yet it is quite as well established, that 
the quantity of different salts admits of some lati- 
itude ; and that some salts do produce better results 
than others. Referring to the acid constituents of 
these salts, it will be found that some acids are or- 
ganic. They consist of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, 
all which mider the influence of the living plant, 
may be dissociated, ana their element form geine. 
Other acids consist of oxygen and nitrogen, essen- 
tial constituents of plants ; others consist of chlo- 
rine ; others of sulphur and oxygen, and others of 
carbon and oxygen. In other words, the acids are 
composed of elements, which form food for plants, 
or of elements which enter in a small proportion 
only, into the composition of plants. 

157. In the first case, the salts admit of a larger 
quantity being applied, than in the second. By the 



ACTION OF SALTS. 99 

first, are fed, by the second, plants are poisoned ; 
for the base of all salts acting, as has been explain- 
ed, the acid is eliminated ; if this is set free in large 
quantities, and its elements can be taken up and 
converted by the plant, well, good effects follow ; 
if on the other hand, the elements of the acid are 
such as the plant, like poison on the animal econ- 
omy. 

158. Let salts be divided into two classes, on 
this principle of the peculiarity of action depending 
upon the acid of the salts, the first nourishes, the 
second poisons plants. The first class contains, 
first, carbonates — second, nitrates — third, phos- 
phates. 

159. The action of the first class is to be stud- 
ied under its three divisions. First, the carbonates. 
These include a very large portion of all salts used 
in agriculture. It includes, limestone, ( 14) marble, 
old mortar, shells, shell marl. In all these cases, 
the base or lime, let loose by the action of the liv- 
ing plant, acts at once, as caustic lime upon insolu- 
ble geine, and unconverted vegetable fibre, chang- 
ing these into soluble vegetable food ; while the 
carbonic acid acts immediately upon silicates, de- 
composing these, and upon the geates in the soil, 
converting these into super-geates. Carbonates of 
alkalies, as ashes, &c., act at once. They are sol- 
uble, their alkali acts immediately upon the geine. 
Their carbonic acid acts upon silicates and geine. 
Immediate and decided good effects follow their ap- 
plication ; while carbonate of lime acts slower. It 
often requires many years to bring out the good 
effects of carbonate of lime, and though ultimately 
these effects, it is believed, have never failed of be- 
ing witnessed ; yet so slowly, that its use has been 
often condemned. The principle which is here 



100 ACTION OF SALTS. 

discussed, may account for this apparent discrep- 
ancy. Suppose a barren, worn out, exhausted soil, 
containing yet, a large portion of insoluble geine, 
and decayed vegetable matter, between the state of 
wood and insoluble geine, or even a portion of un- 
decayed, dead wood. It seems too unpromising to 
give it manure ; little of that is to be spared, and 
that is bestowed upon better land. If this is in a 
country where lime is cheap, that is purchased, and 
freely applied, as it is in England, at the rate of 
about a cask to the rod. Even in this case no 
change is produced, the soil is as unproductive as 
ever. The experiment has failed, and is charged 
to book farming. 

160. The properties of lime, and geine, are here 
to be remembered. Lime in excess, renders geine 
insoluble, granting it to have been in a soluble state. 
Lime changes vegetable fibre into soluble geine, 
but being applied in excess it forms an insoluble 
salt. Now by the supposition, there was no great 
excess of vegetable matter, and the lime, rendering 
only a small portion of that soluble, is itself then, 
always in excess, and though it converts, it at the 
same time locks up that geine which it had con- 
verted. The reasoning will hold good, whether a 
cask to the acre, or a cask to the rod, has been ap- 
plied. 

161. The lime has been perhaps, in a caustic 
state, fresh from the kiln, and as soon as it falls into 
powder it is spread and covered in. It is greedy of 
carbonic acid, so long as it remains caustic, it ab- 
sorbs this gas, and slowly becomes carbonate of 
lime. It is now like shell marl, clam, oyster and 
muscle shells. The mode of reasoning applies to 
all these forms. Slowly, but surely, it may not be 
for some years, a gradual improvement in the lim- 



ACTION OF SALTS. 101 

ed soil of the exhausted field, is perceived. The 
carbonate of lime begins to act on the silicates ; and 
the alkalies of the silicates are eliminated. These 
solve or decompose the geine and geates, which 
the lime had locked up ; at the same time the silic- 
ic acid acts on the carbonate of lime, volumes of 
carbonic acid gas are let loose. The carbonic acid 
itself reacts on silicates, eliminating a fresh portion 
of alkali, and upon the geates, converting these 
into super-geates. A round of changes goes on, 
till perhaps, every particle of vegetable food is 
vt'ithdrawn; crops are no longer raised. Having 
witnessed, though slow to believe it, good effects 
from liming, the farmer again applies it to the ex- 
hausted field ; but no good effects can now follow, 
unless manure or decayed vegetable matter is also 
applied. This may be furnished in two ways, 
either artificial or naturally, that is by allowing the 
scanty crop of all sorts of weeds, grass, mullein, &c. 
to decay on the soil where it grew. But this sub- 
ject will be considered in another place. 

162. It has been attempted to show how the 
contradictory and anomalous effects of lime are ex- 
plicable, on the principle (145);^ and here the gen- 
eral theory of the action of lime may be adverted 
to, much of which has been anticipated. Lime is a 
general term, it includes all forms of calcareous 
matter. It is the lime, the base of the salts which 
acts, and that always as lime, no matter how it is 
applied ; whether as marble, as marl, shells, air 
slacked lime, bones or plaster. In a restricted and 
usual acceptation of the term, lime refers only to 
that which has been burned, or stone lime. Its ac- 
tion is threefold, each distinct, first, as a neutraliz- 
er — secondly, a decomposer — thirdly, a converter. 
1st. Wherever free acids exist in soil, lime acts 



102 ACTION OF SALTS. 

as a neutralize!'. It has been asserted, on undoubt- 
ed authority, that occasionally free phosphoric, mu- 
riatic, geic, acetic and malic acids exist in soil. 

2d. Soil may contain abundant geates, particu- 
larly geate of alumina, the least of all demanded by 
plants. Long formed and sun-baked, they are 
scarcely acted on by rain or dew, and are almost 
useless. Here, lime, by decomposing these earthy 
and metallic geates, forms a combination which in 
its nascent state, is readily dissolved. If the car- 
bonate of lime, acts better than the hydrate, it is 
because, following a well known law, double de- 
composition is easier than single. If any acid geine 
exists in the soil, or any free acids, carbonic acid is 
then liberated, it acts on the geate of lime, super- 
geates result, and these are easily soluble. 

3d. The great use of lime is as a converter, 
turning solid and insoluble geine, even solid vege- 
table fibre into soluble vecre table food. Here is the 
point, where philosophy seems to give the choice, 
to refer this action to one of the numerous cases 6f 
catalytic change, which are eveiy day becoming 
more and more familiar ; or to explain the whole 
process by referring it to saponification. This word 
is used as conveying at once what is meant, but it 
is not meant to say that the product of lime and 
vegetable matter is soap. The action of lime on 
geine, may be similar to its action on oil and fat. 
It is well established, that animal and vegetable oils 
and fats, are converted into acids, by the action of 
alkalies, earths, oxides, and even by vegetable fibre 
itself. The general law is, that whenever a sub- 
stance, capable of uniting with the acid of fat or oil, 
is placed in contact with fat or oil, it determines 
the production of acid. Now it has been shown, 
that alkali produces a similar change on geine, it 



ACTION OF SALTS. 103 

developes acid properties. If alkali has converted 
vegetable oil and geine into acid, it is a reason why 
a similar action may be produced by all those sub- 
stances which act thus on oil. Hence lime, earths, 
and metallic oxides, convert geine into acid ; as 
fast as this takes place, so fast it becomes soluble. 
Then too, the long action of air on insoluble geine 
rendering it soluble, is it not analogous to the action 
of air on oils ? Both evolve in this case, vast vol- 
umes of carbonic acid, the oil becomes gelatinous 
and soluble in alkali, does not a similar change oc- 
cur in geine ? It is possible that during the action 
of lime on geine, a soluble substance may be pro- 
duced, bearing the same relation to this process 
that glycerine does to saponification. These views 
need to be followed out experimentally, and may 
be possibly hereafter considered. 

163. In the acid soil, lime acts to eliminate car- 
bonic acid, which then acts on silicates and geine, 
as has been explained. All fat acids or fats and 
oils, act in the same way upon silicates, partly by 
their own acid properties, and partly by the evolu- 
tion of carbonic acid gas, which is evolved during 
their conversion into the acid state. The quantity 
of carbonate of lime which may be applied is un- 
limited, and the quantity of alkali depends on the 
presence of insoluble geine. The more abundant 
is the last, the more freely may alkalies be applied. 
The carbonates include ashes of all kinds, and agri- 
culturally viewed, all kinds of lime, for the quick 
soon becomes mild. The value of ashes in agri- 
culture, depends upon its being a combination of 
salts derived from plants, all of which have a pow- 
erful and decidedly beneficial effect. The question 
is often asked, what is the relative value of spent 



104 ACTION OF SALTS. 

or leached and unleached ashes. It may be an- 
swered by reference to the analysis of ashes. 

Burning reduces these constituents to two classes, 
ashes and volatile salts. The last are found in soot. 
The ashes are formed of salts and silicates. These 
vary in quantity and quality, not only in different 
plants, but, as is well known, in different parts of 
the same plant. Let us take oak, beech, basswood, 
birch, as the types of the composition of hard wood 
ashes; yellow pine, — (pinus ahies) — as the type of 
soft wood ashes ; and wheat straw as the type of 
the ashes of the grasses. 

The average quantity of ashes from 100 parts of 
dry oak, beech, birch, &c., is 2*87. Ashes are di- 
vided by the simple process of leaching, into two 
parts, soluble and insoluble in water. 100 parts of 
hard wood ashes thus afford — soluble, 13'57 ; in- 
soluble, 86-43. 

1,00 parts of the soluble contain : 

Carbonic acid, 22*70. 

Sulphuric acid, 6*43. 

Muriatic acid, 1*82. 

Silex, -95. 

Potash and soda, 67'96. 



99-86. 



100 parts of the insoluble contain : 

Carbonic acid, 35-80. 

Phosphoric acid, 3-40. 

Silex, 4-25. 

Oxide of iron, -52. 

Oxide of manganese, 2*15. 

Magnesia, 3*55. 

Lime, 3580. 



ACTION OF SALTS. 105 

Pine, — (pinus abics) — 100 parts of dry wood af- 
ford only -83 lb. ; of which 100 parts afford soluble, 
50 ; insoluble, 50. 

100 parts of tlie soluble contain : 

Carbonic acid, 13*50. 

Sulphuric acid, 6*90. 

Silex, 2- 

Potash and soda, 69-70. 

Water, 790. 

100- 

100 parts of the insoluble contain : 

Carbonic acid, 21 '50. 

Phosphoric acid, 1.80. 

Silex, 13- 

Magnesia, 870. 

Oxide of iron, 22-30. 

Oxide of manganese, 5-50. 

Lime, 27-20. 

100- 

Wheat straw — 100 parts yield 4-40 lbs. of ashes ; 
100 parts of which afford, soluble, 19 ; insoluble, 81. 

100 parts of the soluble contain : 

Sulphuric acid, 0-2. 

Muriatic acid, 13- 

Silex, 35-6. 

Potash and soda, 50" 

100 parts of the insoluble contain : 

Phosphoric acid, 1*20. 

Silex, 75- 

Oxide of iron, 2-50. 

Lime, 5'80. 

Charcoal, . . . . " 15-50. 



106 ACTION OF SALTS. 

Peat ashes abound in carbonate, sulphate, and es- 
pecially phosphate of lime. Free alkali may be al- 
ways traced in peat ashes ; but alkali exists in it, 
rather as silicate, as in leached ashes. Anthracite 
coal ashes contain carbonate of lime, alumina, and 
oxide of iron. It is good, so far as these abound. 

The above are calculated on the analyses of Ber- 
their, who has detected soda in the ashes of many 
plants. The elements are stated singly ; because 
we have thus at one view, the amount of each, and, 
it is the base chiefly which acts. The agricultural 
value of ashes may be determined by reference to 
these tables. In what state these elements may'be 
combined in plants, we can only determine theoret- 
ically. Thus, the phosphoric acid, by its affinities, 
would be united in the hard woods as above, with 
the lime and iron, forming in each 100 parts of the 
insoluble portion of ashes, phosphate of lime, 5*40 ; 
phosphate of iron, 1*86. 

The composition of the insoluble part of ashes 
gives nearly the constituents of leached ashes. If 
the soap-boiler's process was as perfect as that 
which the chemist employs, still his leached ashes 
would show more lime, than the above tables, be- 
cause he always employs a portion of lime to make 
his ley caustic. This is a variable portion ; whatev- 
er it is, it adds so much to the value of the leached 
ashes. Besides the soap-maker always leaves a 
portion of alkali, which is combined with the silex. 
Exposure to air decomposes this, and then the alkali 
can be extracted by water. This is one great 
source of the active power of leached ashes. 

164. A bushel of good ashes contains about 5 1-2 
lbs. of real potash. In leaching ashes, generally 
about one peck of lime is added to each bushel of 
ashes, and as it loses no bulk during the operation. 



ACTIOM OF SALTS. 107 

a cord of leached ashes contains about the follow-, 
ing proportions, allowing the usual proportion lo be 
leached out, or 4 1-2 lbs. perbushel : — 

Phosphoric acid, \ 117 lbs. 

Silex, 146 *' 

Oxide of iron, 17 " 

" of manganese, 51 " 

Magnesia, 119 " 

Carbonate of lime, including that add- 
ed in leaching, 3072 " 

Potash combined with silica, 50 " 

Spent ashes, therefore, belong to the class of 
carbonates. 

165. It may be here remarked in relation to sili- 
cate of potash, that this substance forms a greater 
part of the residuum produced in the conversion of 
pot into pearl ashes, for the purposes of glass man- 
ufactures, &c. This residuum has been used with 
the most signal success, when mixed in the propor- 
tion of a barrel of this material, with ten horse-cart 
loads of soil alone. — (See Colman's fourth Report, 
page 344.) — The silicate of potash, depending en- 
tirely for its conversion into carbonate of potash, is 
properly considered in the class of carbonates. 

166. The second class of salts, belonging to the 
first division, or nourishers, are the nitrates, includ- 
ing not only saltpetre, both East India and South 
American, or nitrate of potash and nitrate of soda, 
but also all composts of lime, alkali, and animal 
matter. These produce ammonia, which, without 
the lime would act on geine, and render that sol- 
uble. Ammonia, by the mere act of presence, 
hastens decay ; but with'out the influence of lime, 
ammonia is changed to a nitrate of ammonia. 



108 ACTION OF SALTS. 

167. Thus in a compost of animal matter with- 
out alkaline bases, not only has not all the geine 
been rendered as soluble, as is usually supposed, 
by the action of ammonia, before its full action lias 
occurred on the organic matter, to be converted 
into a nitrate of that base. But if the lime exceeds 
that which the nitric acid can saturate, then the 
soluble geine is seized upon, and becomes inert. 
Nitrates act under the influence of the growing 
plant, the base let loose acts on geine, the acid is 
decomposed, and nitrogen given up to the plant, 
and it becomes one of their essential elements. 
The elements of nitrate of ammonia are all taken 
up both acid and base. If there are any salts which 
can be called vegetable food, they are the nitrates. 
The organic constituents of plants, are hydrogen, and 
oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. The two first form 
water; the two middle carbonic acid, the first and last, 
ammonia. Water, ammonia, and carbonic acid then, 
or their elements, compose the organic part of all 
plants. Water and carbon exist in the first divis- 
ion, and nitrogen in the second division of geine, 
which thus contains the elements of water, ammo- 
nia and carbonic acid, or the whole food of plants. 
The nitrogen, also, exists in the air. It forms 80 
per cent, of it. In this state it cannot be assimilat- 
ed by the plant till that has put forth its leaves. Its 
only source for the roots and for the germinating 
seed, is that arising, either from the geine, or from 
ammonia evolved by the fermenting dung, or from 
nitrates. In either case, whether the nitrogen aris- 
es from the geine or from the nitrates, decomposi- 
tion takes place, by the action of the living plant. 

168. Under this view, nitre is found to be one of 
the most active of salts ; yet bland and beneficial 
in all its actions. Nitre is alkali, and acid com- 



ACTION OF SALTS. 109 

posed of one part of nitrogen to five of oxygen. 
The plant decomposes these. The disposition of 
the alkali or of the base, has been already consid- 
ered. The disposition of the alkali or of the base, 
has been already considered. What becomes of 
its acid ? That too, slowly is decomposed. What 
becomes of its elements ? The one part of nitro- 
gen is taken up by the living plant, or it may, un- 
der the combined influences to which it is now sub- 
jected, be in part reconverted, into ammonia by the 
hvdrogen of the geine, and so act on that, as alkali. 
What becomes of its five parts of oxygen ? The 
answer is full of the highest interest. It is a mas- 
ter's key, unlocking the chambers of mystery. The 
oxygen acts, first on the geine of the soil, and sec- 
ondly on the silicates. And first on geine ; let it 
be supposed that this is wholly insoluble, perfectly 
inert. It has been already said, that air converts 
this into soluble geine. This action depends on the 
oxygen of the air acting on the carbon, by which 
carbonic acid is formed ; the geine is thus rendered 
soluble, while the carbonic acid escaping, acts on 
the silicates of the soil, and these are thus decom- 
posed. There is no mystery now in the action of 
saltpetre or nitrates of alkalies. The immediate 
effects are due, to the liberated alkali, acting on the 
geine. Its permanent effects, for experience has 
proved permanency of effect, peculiarly due to ni- 
trates, is owing to the liberation of an immense 
dose of oxygen which is produced from the gradual 
decomposition of the acid. Now the insoluble geine 
condenses this in its pores, like charcoal. This 
condensation like that of gas by charcoal, produces 
heat; it is like fermenting manure, while the con- 
densed oxygen acts slowly on the geine, forming 
carbonic acid. It has upon the geine, buried in the 



110 ACTION OF SALTS. 

soil, the same effect that tillage would have, ren- 
dering it soluble, with this additional advantage — 
that its carbonic acid instead of escaping acts on 
the silicates. New portions of alkali are thus lib- 
erated, supplying for years that which was first ap- 
plied, as a part of saltpetre. The nitrates then, 
hold the very first place among salts, in agriculture. 
169. Thirdly, phosphates — this includes bones, 
horn, nails, hoofs, and claws, and a large portion 
of the salts found in the liquid excretions of animals. 
These act much like nitre, the acid forming a con- 
stituent of the plants. It is not probable that the 
acid in this class is decomposed. It has not yet 
been proved that carbonates and nitrates exist al- 
ready formed except in a very few plants. The 
quantity of salts which may be applied, will be 
greatest in the carbonates, next in the nitrates, and 
thirdly in the phosphates. The quantity of any 
salt which may be used will, after the largest 
amount, which can be safely employed has been 
ascertained, depend upon the farmer's ability to 
produce it. Carbonate of lime, may be used to 
any extent, according to the farmer's idea of its 
value. Carbonates of alkali may be used with 
benefit. The largest quantity which has been 
known to be used without injury, has been 53 bush- 
els of ashes per acre, which are equal to 240 lbs. 
of potash. The quantity of the carbonates of al- 
kali, which may be used, will be stated more fully 
hereafter. It is not the object of this work, to state 
quantities to be used, so much as to point out the 
principles on which salts act. The quantities used, 
must be determined by experiment, and perhaps 
when the largest amount, which has been stated, is 
taken for a new starting point, the ultimate quantity, 



ACTION OF SALTS. Ill 

will be found limited only by the geine in the soil, 
or applied in conjunction with the salt. 

170. If we now turn to the other division of salts, 
the poisons, that is, those whose acid forms but a 
small portion of the elements of plants, we find 
two classes : First, sulphates, as plaster, copperas, 
Glauber's salts, all of which in small quantities, are 
beneficial. An explanation, which attributes the 
action of sulphate of lime or plaster, to its power of 
decomposing and fixing in soil, carbonate of ammo- 
nia ought to show, 1st. the actual presence of that 
salt in air ; 2d. that sulphate of ammonia is not de- 
composed by the resulting carbonate of lime in the 
cold ; 3d. that common salt, would in equivalent 
quantity with plaster, produce equally good effects. 
It never has, and therefore this explanation is not 
correct. 

Secondly, Muriates or chlorides, as they are 
strictly called, as common salt, muriate of lime, 
bittern, spent ley from soap-works. Comijfion salt 
has been found beneficial when applied at the rate 
of 30 bushels per acre ; and at 14 bushels per acre, 
was found to produce effect, next best to 53 bushels 
of ashes per acre, but quick lime at 26 bushels per 
acre on the same land, produced no gopd result. 

171. In all this action of salts, it is seen that the 
presence of life seems almost essential. Whatever 
the vital principle may be, it^ay be best represent- 
ed as analogous to electricity and galvanism. In 
this point of view, the salts present themselves in a 
new relation. In a relation, in which alone, they 
may be said to be stimulants or excitants. Plants 
and soil act, it maybe supposed, for illustration, by 
forming galvanic batteries, or piles with each other. 
The most active element in the pile, is the growing 
plant. It is an acknowledged fact, that chemical 



112 ACTION OF SALTS. 

action, if not the source is ever attended by elec- 
trical effects. An acid, in contact with an alkali, 
or metal, always produces chemical action; but the 
silicates of the soil, are already combinations of 
-acid and metals ; hence as such, they have no ten- 
dency to act on each other. If there be added to 
these a salt or an acid, chemical action, decompo- 
sition begins. The electricity is, we may say, ex- 
cited by salts — they are in this sense, and in no 
other, excitants or stimulants. The very first act 
of vegetation, the germination of seeds, induces this 
electric action, this decomposition of the elements 
of soil. Germination produces carbonic acid, by 
decomposing water. This has been so abundantly 
proved, by late experiments in France, that it ap- 
pears to be a good argument against the theory, 
that the only action of humus is, its production of 
carbonic acid, to supply the wants of the plant, be- 
fore nature has clothed it with those organs of aspi- 
ration, 4he leaves, by which the carbonic acid is 
withdrawn from the air. It seems hardly probable 
that nature should require the presence of humus 
or geine, merely as a laboratory of carbonic acid, 
to supply the wants of the young plant. The very 
first act of life in a seed is to evolve carbonic acid, 
by its carbon combining with oxygen of air, and its 
second act is to decompose water. Its oxygen 
combines with the (farbon of the seed, a single 
bean, produces many times its bulk of carbonic acid 
gas ; and in the soil would surround itself with an 
atmosphere of carbonic acid. This evolved, begins 
its action upon the silicates. The living seed be- 
gins the electric action, and the plants exert and 
keep u.p this influence. Salts act in a similar way, 
but above all, over all, influencing all, is the living 
plant. This electric action induced, extends to un- 



ACTION OF SALTS. 113 

determined distances ; hence there is a transfer, as 
is usual in all cases of galvanic decomposition, of 
substances remote from the plant, to its root, where 
they are taken up. It is not the potash and lime, 
&c., immediately in contact with the root, which 
alone supplies the plant, but under the galvanic in- 
fluence, an undetermined portion of soil is decom- 
posed. This decomposing agency of plants, whol- 
ly destroys all confidence in experiments, under- 
taken to prove that pure water alone, can nourish 
plants. The containing vessel, that is the vessel 
in which the experiment is made, is itself always 
decomposed. If to guard against an error, glass is 
used, it has already been shown, that this is only a 
combination of silicates, and these will be transfer- 
red from the glass to the plant. 



114 MANURE. 



CHAPTER VI. 
MANURE. 

172. The true farmer, no less a sage than the 
ancient orator, who gave to action, the first, second, 
and third place in eloquence, will answer if it is 
asked him, what is his first requisite ? Manure. 
What second ? Manure. What third ? Manure. 
These answers are to be united. Action and ma- 
nure are the first and last requisites in agriculture, 
and in the attempt to show what is the last, and 
how it acts, will be offered e^very inducement to 
action. 

173. Manures are compounds of geine and salts. 
They of course contain the whole elements of fer- 
tility. Having discussed the nature and mode of 
action of salts, and of geine, the way is prepared 
for the discussion of manures. The proportion in 
which these elements exist in manures is now to be 
examined. 

174. The immense variety of substances, used 
and recommended for manures, would seem to ren- 
der this subject both extensive and complicated. It 
is capable of simplification. Manures are general- 
ly considered and treated of, under the division of 
animal and vegetable. This common and ancient 
division, indicating little of the nature of manures, 
actually confounds those, whose elements are es- 



MANURE. 115 

sentially alike. Manures are to be divided by their 
elements, into three classes : — 

1st. Those consisting chiefly of geine. 

2d. Those consistina; chieflv of salts. 

3d. Mixed, or consisting of salts and geine. . 

175. This seems to be a rational and practical 
mode of classifying a vast amount of materials, and 
the explanation of their action in classes, is prefer- 
able to a specific account of each individual sub- 
stance composing these classes. 

176. By far the greater part of manures belongs 
to the third class. Such are all composts, all stable 
manure, and all the usual products of the cow-yard 
and hog-pen. In discussing therefore, this subject, 
there ought to be some starting point, some stand- 
ard common measure of value, to which can be re- 
ferred all manures, and by which their worth can 
be determined. 

177. In selecting a manure for this purpose, if it 
can be ascertained, how much of geine, what, and 
in what proportion salts enter into its constitution, 
what gases it evolves, what chemical action it in- 
duces upon silicates, it will determine the relative 
value of all. manures, they will approach or depart 
from the standard, in exact proportion to the geine 
and kind of salts they contain. 

178. Manures then, are the elements of fertility. 
They contain, beside the inorganic salts, the organ- 
ic elements of plants, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, 
nitrogen. The quantity of ammonia which each 
manure can afford, will be in direct proportion to 
the quantity of nitrogen which each contains ; and 
perhaps the only true and scientific view, which 
should be taken of manures, is that, which states 
their components not as compounds, but as simple 
elements ; a statement which should give at a glance 



116 MANURE. 

the exact quantity of the four organic elements 
which enters into their composition. To a Hmited 
extent this can be done, and in the attempts to il- 
lustrate this subject, this mode of stating the value 
of manures, will be united with a more detailed ac- 
count of their ingredients. 

179. And first, for the choice of some substance 
which shall form the type of manures, and be con- 
sidered the standard of value. Let it be pure, fresh 
fallen cow-dung, and what is its composition ? 
Water, hay, and bile, with a few salts. The au- 
thor has repeatedly analyzed this form of the food 
of plants, and it is found that the water is a very 
uniform quantity at all seasons and with various 
food. Others have found a few per cent, less 
than that which will be here stated ; while some 
late and distinguished German chemists, have giv- 
en results agreeing with this statement within a 
fraction of one per cent. 

180. The proportions of organic matter and salts, 
and water, in 100 lbs. of cow-dung, are — 

Water, 83*60 

Organic f ^.^>^' ^^'^^ 

Matter i ^^^^ ^"^ resinous & biliary matter, 1*275 
( Albumen, • '175 

C Silica, -14 

Sulphate of Potash, -05 

Geate of Potash, '07 

Muriate of Soda, -08 

Phosphate of Lime, '23 

Sulphate of Lime, '12 

I _ Carbonate of Lime, -12 

99*86 
Loss, 0-14 

100^ 



Salts. ^ 



MANURK. 117 

181. 100 parts of cow-dung by Morin's analysis, 
consist of 

Water, 70- 

Vegetable fibre, 24-08 

Green resin and fat acids, 1*52 

Undecom posed biliary matter, 0'60 

Peculiar extractive matter, 1.60 

Albumen, 0*40 

Biliary resin, 1*80 

10000 

182. 100 parts of cow-dung, by the analysis of 
M. Penot, in 1835, consist of 

Water, 6958 

Bitter matter, 0*74 

Sweet substance, 0*93 

Chrophylle, 028 

Albumen, 0'63 

Muriate of soda, 08 

Sulphate of potash, 0*05 

Sulphate of lime, * 25 

Carbonate of lime, 0*24 

Phosphate of lime, 0*46 

Carbonate of iron, 009 

Woody fibre, 26 39 

Silica, 014 

Loss, 014 



10000 



183. Other analyses have given a greater amount 
of water ; and difler but little in that item from the 
experiments of the author. Truly this statement 
does not lead one to suppose, that a very good se- 



118 MANURE. 

lection has been made, in the choice of the stand- 
ard of value for manure. Here is a substance, 
83 1-2 per cent, of which is pure water. Let that 
be thrown out of the account ; there are 14 per 
cent, of hay ; this is very little altered, it seems 
only bruised and chopped, but it has lost some of 
its albumen, gum, &c. Now the last is that por- 
tion of nutriment, which the animal has extracted 
from the hay. 

184. It is found that hay which has thus been 
passed through living organs, has its elements much 
less disposed to remain combined, or, in other words, 
decay, that species of fermentation which forms 
geine, takes place much more rapidly in the hay of 
cow dung, than in common hay. The catalysis of 
life, has impressed its power of disassociation on the 
hay of cow dung. The hay may therefore be con- 
sidered geine. v 

In the same class may be included the biliary 
matter, deducting from this the green resin of hay 
associated with it, and there remains in 100 lbs of 
dung, only a small proportion of salts and biliary 
matter. 

The albumen from its great tendency to sponta- 
neous decomposition, may also be ranked as geine. 
It produces abundance of ammonia during decom- 
position, and probably is the great source of the 
evolution of that gas, during the fermentation of 
cow-dung. Its proportion is very small, being only 
about a sixth of one per cent. 

185. Without violence to chemistry, the compo- 
sition of cow-dung may be stated as follows : 

Geine, 1545 

Salts, 095 

Water, : . . 8360 

10000 



MANURE. 119 

In 100 lbs. hardly 1-6 of any value in agricul- 
ture ! Only about 1-6 of cow-dung is soluble geine. 
The insoluble is converted to soluble by the action 
of the evolved ammonia. 

186. An important question here presents itself. 
How much ammonia will 100 lbs. of cow-dung pro- 
duce ? The ultimate analysis of this substance, 
that is, that analysis which gives the proportion of 
the organic elements, is the following : 

In 100 parts of cow-dung — 

Nitrogen, "560 

Carbon, -204 

Hydrogen, '824 

Oxygen, 4*818 

187. From these data may be calculated how 
much ammonia will be formed ; for one part of 
nitrogen unites with three parts of hydrogen to 
form ammonia, or in the atomic proportions by 
weight : 

14 of nitrogen, 
3 of hydrogen, which form 

17 of real or pure ammonia. 

100 parts of fresh fallen cow-dung will afford 
therefore, 0'614, or 5-8 of a pound of pure ammo- 
nia, or 2*13 lbs., or about 2 lbs. 2 oz. of carbonate 
of ammonia of the shops, called sal volatile or salts 
of hartshorn. 

188. Cow-dung then, the type of manures, re- 
solves itself into geine, free alkali, and salts. The 
salts, considering the nitrogen as carbonate of am- 
monia of the shops, will form about three per cent., 
of the weight of the dung ; or a bushel of 86 lbs. 



120 MANURE. 

will contain, in round numbers, 2 1-2 lbs. of salts of 
ammonia, potash, soda and lime. 

189. The cow, then, is the great manufacturer 
of salts and geine, and it is a question of the high- 
est interest, what is the daily produce of her man- 
ufactory ? In order to determine this, the follow- 
ing experiment was conducted with great care, at 
the barn connected with the print works of the 
Merrimack manufacturing company, in Lowell. A 
single cow, being only an average producer of the 
article in question, was selected from the 50 cows 
usually kept at the establishment. She was fed as 
usual, and as the other cows were. The food and 
water were accurately weighed for seven days. 
She consumed in this period, 

Water, 612 lbs. 

Potatoes, 87 " 
Hay, 167 " 



Total, 866 " food and drink, and 
voided, free from her liquid evacuations, 599 lbs. of 
dung. 

From the facts which have been now stated, it is 
evident, that one cow prepares, daily, from 24 lbs. 
of hay, and 12 lbs. of potatoes, about one bushel, 
or 85-57 lbs. of dung. This affords only 14 1-2 lbs. 
of solid manure, composed of hay so acted on by 
the digestive organs, as to form geine, when united 
with ammonia produced by putrefaction. One 
cow daily forms therefore — 

12 lbs. geine, 

1-5 " say 3 oz. of phosphate of lime, 
1-10 " say 1 1-2 oz. of plaster of Paris, 
1-10 " say 1 1-2 oz. of chalk. 



MANUR£. 121 

Or per year : 

4400 lbs. of geine, 
17 " of bone dust, 
37 " of plaster, 
37 " of lime, marble, or chalk, 
25 " of common salt, 
15 " of sal enixen, or sulphate of potash. 

These are equal to one cow, or a cord of green 
cow-dung, pure as dropped, would be formed, daily, 
by 108 cows. A cord of dung weighs 9,289 lbs., 
which -f- 86 lbs. = 1 cow, = 108 cows. And one 
cow daily produces in excrements, salts of lime suf- 
ficient for half a bushel of corn. 

190. Multiply the quantity produced by one cow, 
by the number of cows, kept, and it may easily be 
calculated, how much salts and geine, are annually 
applied to soil, in this form. This is better done, 
than the estimate b}^ cords or loads. The manure 
from one cow is a definite comprehensible quantity, 
and it may be expressed by saying, that one cow is 
spread per acre. 

191. Estimating the nitrogen as ammonia, the 
yearly product of one cow is 155 lbs. of nitrogen 
equal to 188 lbs. of pure ammonia, or equal to 550 
lbs. of carbonate of ammonia of the shops. A sin- 
gle cow, will therefore give annually, fed on hay 
and potatoes, 31,025 lbs. of dung, containing 

4,400 lbs. of geine, 

550 " of carbonate of ammonia, 

71 " of bone dust, 

37 " of plaster, 

37 " of chalk, 

24 " of common salt, 

15 " of sulphate of potash. 



122 BIANURE. 

192. It is perfectly evident from this view, that 
the main agricultural value depends on the ammo- 
nia or nitrogen, and the geine. The lime in its 
forms of salts, goes but little way towards this value, 
yet valuable, so far as they exist. It is evident 
from section 74, that the lime in the above salts of 
lime, the annual product of one cow, is sufficient to 
supply the grain and straw of a crop of wheat, of 
twenty bushels per acre, on three acres. 

193. If these, then, are the elements of plants 
which are found in cow-dung, is it to the organic 
or the inorganic portion, that the enriching power is 
due ? The great value of dung as a manure, has 
been supposed to be dtie to its animal matter. The 
common idea of animal matter includes substances, 
which contain much nitrogen, but is. it to the nitro- 
gen, or to salts, that the chief value of manure is 
due ? To the nitrogen, chiefest and first, and that 
too, as it exists in the albumenous portion of dung. 
The nitrogen of the hay contributes very little to 
the value of manure. The hay furnishes the geine, 
and probably all its nitrogen is employed in pro- 
ducing those forms of it, which contain that ele- 
ment, that is crenic and apocrenic acids. That it 
is the nitrogen of dung, only, the part not contained 
in the hay, which evolves ammonia, is evident ; for 
if the nitrogen of the hay only, was the essential 
element of manure, then hay, which contains about 
one per cent, of nitrogen could supply its place ; 
50 pounds would be equal to 100 pounds of dung. 
It is well known that such effect is never produced 
by planting on hay. 

194. It is not to the nitrogen only, in dung, to 
which can be referred the action of this manure. 
It depends on its other elements, salts and geine. 
The action of nitrogen is referred to its power of 



MANURE. 123 

forming ammonia, and this then acts in two ways. 
First, upon geine or the hay part ; secondly, upon 
silicates. First, it is a powerful alkali. Now it 
has been shown that all alkaline earths convert in- 
soluble, into soluble geine. Secondly, it is a well 
established fact, that the production of nitre, is not 
necessarily dependent on the presence of animal 
matter ; but that, under the influence of porous ma- 
terials, aided by alkalies or lime, the elements of 
air combine and form nitric acid and nitrates. This 
action is greatly assisted by ammonia, which acts 
by catalysis. The great use of the animal matter 
is to produce this alkali oi^mmonia. If no alka- 
line base is present, it becaBes the source of the 
formation of nitrate of ammonia. This salt being 
decomposed by the living plant, its nitric acid acts 
on the silicates, and saltpetre or nitrate of potash is 
produced. The agency of this as a manure, has 
already been considered (167, 168.) The action, 
also, of other salts in dung, will be easily under- 
stood by reference to the fourth chapter. 

195. There is still a powerful effect due to the 
geine, or to the hay in its conversion to that state. 
During this process, an immense quantity of car- 
bonic acid is liberated. The decomposing action 
of this upon silicates of the soil, and the consequent 
liberation of their alkali, has also been explained, 
(133.) All these actions are to be remembered, 
in accounting for the action of cow-dung. The 
geine, salts, nitrogen, each acts — the geine has an 
action, the salts an action, the nitrogen an action. 
They all contribute to one end. Three substances, 
but one result, viz : Vegetation. 

196. The nitrogen then, in dung, is that organic 
element, to which must be attributed its chief en- 
riching quality. The nitrogen is the basis, both of 



124 Manure. 

the production ammonia, and of the formation of 
nitrates. Hence, the quantity of nitrogen in ma- 
nures, will form a very good element in the esti- 
mation of their value. Manures will be found rich, 
in proportion to their quantity of nitrogen, or their 
power of forming nitrates. This is the great and 
first cause of the enriching power of dung. Though 
the action of all excrements has been referred to 
their inorganic parts only, common experience 
tends to the explanation which has been given of 
the joint action of all their parts. 

197. The source of nitrogen in dung is an inter- 
esting question. Is i^ever produced from the hay ? 
That food daily tak^Pdoes not contain so much 
nitrogen as is contained in the evacuated solids. 
By reference to 189, it appears that a cow consum- 
ed 612 lbs. of water, 87 lbs. of potatoes, 167 lbs. of 
hay. Deducting now, the water drank, the water 
in the hay which is about 4 per cent., and the wa- 
ter of the potatoes 75 per cent., 182 lbs. of solid 
food were consumed in seven days, or 26 lbs. per 
day. The daily evacuation of solids, deducting the 
water, was 14 pounds. 

The evacuated dung contained 3*03 nitrogen. 

The hay originally contained 1*67 " 



1-36 

Hence, nearly double the amount of nitrogen 
contained in the hay eaten, has been voided. Its 
source must be looked for in the potatoes, and in 
the atmospheric air, absorbed by the water which 
was drank. But it is evident from these facts, that 
dung owes not its value to the nitrogen only, of 
hay ; nor will the effects be different, if the salts 
only of equivalent portions of dung and hay be 
taken. 



MANURE. 125- 

198. If a cow assimilated all the nitrogen of her 
hay, 25 lbs. of hay would incrf^ase her weight daily, 
by about 8 lbs. ; but no one expects such a result, 
and the balance of the nitrogen goes off in milk, or 
in liquid excretions. Hence, a milch cow fats not. 
So long as a greater part of the nitrogen is voided 
by milk or otherwise, a cow fats not. If she is not 
parting with nitrogen in milk, a greater portion 
goes off in dung. Hence, a common observation, 
that the manure of fattening cattle is richer than 
that of milch cows, or of cattle not fattening. 

199. The difference in the quantity of bile, 
slime, &;c., in a cow fed on hay or on meal, is not 
very great. A cow was fed six days on meal and 
water. She consumed in this period, 

Indian meal, 96 lbs., or per day, 16 lbs. 
Hay, 30 " " 5 " 

Water, 330 » " 55 " 



76 lbs. 

There were voided during this period, 330 lbs. of 
dung, or 55 lbs. daily. She scoured and lost flesh. 
The evacuation had all the appearance of night 
soil, and soon evolved a great quantity of ammonia, 
and though covered in an earthen pot, was soon 
studded with a crop of exquisitely beautiful fungi. 
Compared with hay dung, its composition was, 

Geine, 17*43, 14*45 in common dung. 

Salts, -93, -95 '' " 

Water, 81-64, 83-60 » 

Probably the nitrogen was 2 1-2 per cent., or 
five times that of common cow-dung. 

200. Doubtless the value of all excrements will 
depend somewhat upon the food of the animal, and 
the manner of feeding. It may be stated as a gen- 
eral fact, that the manure of cattle, summer-soiled, 



126 MANURE. 

is nearly twice the strength of that from the stalls 
in winter ; and all fattening cattle, whether in win- 
ter or summer, produce, as has been stated, a still 
richer vegetable food. Animals fattening on oil 
cake, gave manure, 12 loads of which exceeded in 
value of crops raised, 24 of common stock. These 
remarks show, that some allowance is to be made 
for the food. The standard refers only to hay and 
potatoes. But the value due to different food, may 
not be so great as is commonly supposed. The ac- 
tual amount of nitrogen, even where vegetable and 
animal food is concerned, is not materially different. 
There were two dogs, which were fed, the one on 
vegetable food alone, the other on animal ; at the 
appointed time, these animals were sacrificed on 
the altar of physiological experiment, and the chyle 
examined. The following were the results : 

Vesretable Food. Animal Food. 



Water, 


9306 


8902 


Fibrine, 


•06 


•08 


Albumen, 


4-6 


4-7 


Salts, 


•8 


•7 



These are the sources of ammonia, if the chyle 
had been allowed to putrefy. 

201. The ammonia in dung, as has been ex- 
plained, is the source both of the rapid conversion 
of the hay into soluble geine, and of nitrates. The 
action of unfermented dung needs no explanation 
after this exposition. The geine, the salts, carbon- 
ic acid, and ammonia, must be formed among the 
silicates and roots of plants on which they are to 
act. \ 

202. Having determined the mode of expressing 
the value of manures, and fixing the standard of 
value, other manures containing salts and geine. 



MANURE. 127 

may now be compared with that, and their value 
determined, by detailing their constituents. 
203. Horse -dung contains : 

Water, 71-20 

Hay, bile and slime, 27* 

Silica, -64 

Phosphate of lime, '08 

Carbonate of lime, '30 

Phosphate of magnesia and soda, - - '58 
Loss, -20 



10000 

The food of the horse Avill of course affect these 
results, and hence there is found a great discrep- 
ancy in the amount of the elements, at different 
times. 

204. Expressing the value compared with- cow- 
dung, we have — 

Geine, 27* 

Salts, -96 

Water, 71-20 

The geine then, is nearly double that in cow- 
dung, and the salts, which are mostly phosphates of 
lime, magnesia, and soda, are about the same. If 
the nitrogen is regarded, it is found about 50 per 
cent, greater, than in cow-dung. Hence during 
the chemical actions of the production of ammonia 
and nitrates, if the heat is in proportion to that ac- 
tion, we may possibly assign a reason, why horse- 
dimg is a hotter manure than cow-dung. The 
nitrogen in horse-dung is about 3-4 of one per cent, 
or, this manure contains, in 100 parts : 

Geine, 27* 

Salts, -96 

Carbonate of ammonia, 3*24 



128 MANURE. 

205. Hog manure and night soil. These may 
be both arranged under one head. Taking night 
soil in its purest state, its composition may be thus 
stated : 

Water, 75-3 

Geine, 23-5 

Salts, - - 1-2 

These salts are nearly three -fourths of the whole 
composed of carbonate, muriate and sulphate of 
soda. The remainder being composed of phos- 
phates of lime and magnesia ; the last is particular- 
ly abundant in night soil. Its average quantity of 
nitrogen, is about 3 1-4 per cent. Night soil, in- 
cluding that of the hog, contains, per 100 parts : 

Geine, 23" 

Salts, 1-2 

Carbonate of ammonia, 15*32 

No analysis has yet been made of hog manure, 
but in its characters it approaches night soil suffi- 
ciently, to be ranked with it, for the present pur- 
pose. It is the manure of fattening swine only 
which is to be classed with night soil. The estray 
and running animals produce only a " cold " ma- 
nure of little value. The manure of the penned 
animal, is always combined with his liquid evacu- 
ation. This, whose value is stated, (247) gives 
hog manure a value which places it with night soil. 
Sheep-dung probably is in this class. Sheep may 
be said to digest better than cattle. They cut their 
food finer, and chew it better ; they void thus less 
vegetable fibre. Their excrement is more convert- 
ed into geine. Fed on hay alone, their excrement 
i^ composed of: 



MANURE. 129 

Water 67-9 

Bilious and extracted matter, 1*7 

Humus with slime, 12*8 

Hay and vegetable matter, 8*0 

Silica, 6'0 

Carbonate and phosphate of lime, - - - 2*0 
Carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda, 1*6 



1000 

Sprengel. 

The nitrogen is abundant, and the amount of 
matter containing this, nearly three-fifths greater 
than that of cattle dung. The whole is finer divid- 
ed, and hence speedily putrefies, and evolves am- 
monia. It is thus one of the hottest of all manures. 
But, containing as it does, little water, and being in 
fine compact balls, air cannot act upon it as it 
would upon cow-dung. Hence, unless moisture is 
present, sheep-dung undergoes little change. Great 
care is required in its use. Its ammonia is abund- 
ant, hence if uncombined with geine, it burns up 
the crops. Hence, when there is little geine, little 
sheep-dung must be used. Where the soil is wet, 
and that too with little vegetable matter in it, there 
decomposition rapidly occurs, and the virtue of the 
dung, its ammonia is lost. 

It is said that 1000 sheep folded on an acre of 
ground one day, would manure it sufficiently to 
feed 1001 sheep, if their manure could all be saved. 
So that by this process, land which can, the first 
year, feed only 1000 sheep, may the next year, by 
their own droppings, feed 1365. So said Ander- 
son, forty years ago, (Rural Essays.) Sprengel 
allows that the manure of 1400 sheep for one day, 
is equal to manuring highly, one acre of land. 

206. Thus the three most common substances, 



130 MANURE. 

used for manure, cow, horse and hog-dung, includ- 
ing night soil, are reduced to geine, salts and car- 
bonate of ammonia, or nitrogen, its equivalent. It 
need not be said, that the experience of ages, has 
proved that these three varieties of manure, possess 
very different fertilizing properties. These depend 
not on the salts alone, whose amount and quality is 
nearly the same in all. Nor on the geine, for that 
is nearly the satne in human and horse excre- 
ment. Their fertilizing power then, depends not, 
as has been asserted, on the salts which would ren- 
der their agricultural value equal. All experience 
would prove such an assertion unfounded. But it 
is said that their relative value depends on their 
power of producing ammonia. 

207. This is a practical view of a practical sub- 
ject. The nitrogen present in the manure express- 
es its true value. This position is substantiated by 
the experience of practical men. The experi- 
ments undertaken by order of the Saxon and Prus- 
sian authorities, to ascertain whether the contents of 
the sewers of the cities of Dresden and Berlin, 
could be applied to fertilizing the barren lands in 
their vicinity, may be offered to prove its correct- 
ness. These varied in every form, and continued 
for a long period, prove that if a soil without ma- 
nure, yields a crop of three for one sown, then the 
same land dressed with cow-dung yields 

7 for one sown, — with 

Horse-dung, 10 " " 

Human mianure, 14 " " 

Now the nitrogen in these has been shown, tak- 
ing the minimum of nitrogen in the human, at 1 1-2 
per cent, is as 1 : 1*50 : 3, whilst the above num- 
bers are to each other, as 1 : 1*43 : 2. 

Considering how varied is the composition of 



MANURE. 131 

night soil, and how much diluted by various mix- 
tures, this agreement is as near as ought to have 
been expected, in experiments whose objects were so 
totally different from that of ascertaining the quanti- 
ty of nitrogen in each different manure. 

208. Each substance used for a manure, cannot 
be considered in detail. Their general composi- 
tion only, will be mentioned. Among the mixed 
manures, poudrette, and guano, rank next to night 
soil. Poudrette, is night soil partly dried in pans 
and mixed up with variable quantities of ground 
peat and plaster. Its value will depend on the 
circumstance, whether its ammonia is saved, or lost, 
in the manufacture. If sulphate or muriate of lime 
is added before drying, then the volatile carbonate 
of ammonia, will be changed into sulphate of am- 
monia, and sal ammoniac. Thus not only the most 
valuable portion of night soil will be retained, but, 
the salts of lime will be much increased. The peat 
not only retains a portion of gaseous ammonia, but 
its geine by this act is rendered more soluble. All 
night soil from vaults has began to evolve ammonia, 
hence the advantage of mixing ground peat or plas- 
ter with night soil, before drying. 

209. It is evident therefore, that the value of 
poudrette, depends on the skill, and honesty of the 
manufacturer. But allowing these to be what they 
should be, no consumer of poudrette will think him- 
self wronged, if he discovers ground peat in the 
article ; and allowing this, and the plaster, or other 
salts added, to compose one-half the weight of this 
manure, the farmer buys in every hundred pounds 
of poudrette, 200 pounds of the best human excre- 
ment, and in form not only portable, but perfectly 
inoffensive. The value of good poudrette, depend- 



132 MANURE. 

ing on its ammonia, is, compared with cow-dung, 
as 14 to 1. 

210. There is yet another form of poudrette, 
which though much used in France, has not been 
introduced here. It is almost one-third animal mat- 
ter, and it is formed without any offensive evolu- 
tion of gas, by boiling the offal of the slaughter- 
house, by steam, into a thick soup, and then mix- 
ing the whole into a stiff paste, with sifted coal 
ashes, and drying. If putrefaction should have be- 
gun, the addition of ashes, sweetens the whole, and 
the prepared " animalized coal," as it is termed, or 
poudrette, is as sweet to the nose, as garden mould. 
It is transported in barrels from Paris to the interior, 
and is a capital manure. 

2.11. Guano is the excrement of sea-birds. It is 
found on our northern rocks and islands, but its 
great deposite is on the islands of the southern 
ocean, between 13^ and 21® south latitude. It 
there forms immense beds, from 60 to 80 feet thick. 
What a length of time must have elapsed, or how 
incredible the number of birds, to have produced 
that pile of guano, whose base, washed by the sea, 
was observed by our countryman, Mr. Blake, to 
stretch a mile in length, and to tower 800 to 900 
feet high ! The composition of ancient guano, 
countenances the idea of its being the excrements 
of birds ; probably they belonged to that ancient 
flock, whose huge foot-marks have left their im- 
press on the shores of an estuary, which has since 
become the sandstone of the Connecticut river 
valley. 

212. The latest analysis of guano, is that of 
Voelckel, and may be here cited. 



MANURE. 133 

Urate of ammonia, 9* 

Oxalate of ammonia, 10*6 

Oxalate of lime, 7* 

Phosphate of ammonia, 6* 

Phosphates of ammonia and magnesia, - 2*6 

Sulphate of potash, 5*5 

Sulphate of soda, 3*8 

Muriate of ammonia, 4"2 

* Phosphate of lime, 14-3 

Clay and sand, 4*7 

Undetermined organic substances, of ^ 

which about 12 per cent, are soluble ! 09.0 
in water, a trace of salts of iron j 

and water, J 

100- 

An analysis of one sample indicates little of the 
general character of the deposit. Its value depends 
chiefly on its volatile constituents, which vary from 
1 to 3. Two samples from the same parcel, yield- 
ed. Professor Johnston : 

No. 1 
Water, salts of ammonia, and organic matter, 23*5 

Sulphate of soda, 1*8 

Common salt and phosphate of soda, - - - - 30"3 
Phosphates of lime and magnesia, and carbon- 
ate of lime, 44*4 

100- 

No. 2. 

Water and volatile matter, ' 51'5 

Ammonia, 7* 

Uric acid, '8 

Common salt and sulphate & phosphate of soda, 1 1*4 
Phosphate of lime, 29*3 

1000 



134 , MANURE. 

Ammonia is the most valuable ingredient ; next, 
a peculiar acid, called uric acid, which gradually 
affords ammonia, after these the bone earth of guano, 
gives it a permanent effect. The volatile matter 
acts in the earlier stage of vegetation. It is con- 
tinuall)^ escaping. Hence, fresh fallen guano is al- 
ways best. It is probably like the recent droppings 
of the present race of fish-eating birds. These con- 
sist almost wholly of uric acid. The excrement 
of the sea eagle gave in the 

Solid Evacuations. Liquid Evacuations. 



Ammonia, - - - - 9*20 
Uric acid, - - - 84-65 
Phosphate of lime, 6*13 



Uric acid, ... - 59* 

Other salts, - - - - 41- 



100- . 100- 

Compared with these, guano contains 1-5 to 1-7 
of its original organic elements. No substance 
yields more substances for the wants of plants, in 
all stages of their growth, than guano. 

It is an article of commerce. There are three 
varieties known in trade. The white, the dark 
grey, the red brown, which is the most com- 
mon. The white is the most recent, the red brown 
the most ancient, and decomposed, the grey inter- 
mediate. The actual money value of guano, to the 
farmer, in England, where it is now somewhat used, 
does not exceed $5 per cwt. At this price, ac- 
cording to the experience of fair dealers, it can be 
imported at a reasonable profit. Beyond this, prac- 
tical men, who have used it, say that the farmer 
cannot afford to employ it. Mr. Blake thinks it 
may be afforded for 11-2 cent per pound, deliver- 
ed in the United States. It is much used in Peru, 
where a spoonful is applied to each hill, as soon as 



MANURE. 135 

the corn shows itself. The effects are what the 
most sanguine could expect, from this natm'al, con- 
centrated poudrette, consisting both of salts and 
geine. Allowing, as has been asserted, that the 
land itself in Peru, contains not a particle of organ- 
ic matter, guano can be no proof that plants re- 
quire not geine, containing as it does, by analysis, 
12 per cent, of soluble organic matter. 

213. The dung of all domestic fowls, and of 
birds in general, contains salts similar to those in 
guano; and while this subject is under consideration, 
the fact may be mentioned, that it has experimental- 
ly been proved, that the dung of pigeons is 2-7ths 
stronger than horse manure. And for stoved mul- 
berries, vines, peaches, and other plants, the drop- 
pings of the barn yard fowls, 1 part to from 4 to 10 
of water have been found to produce excellent re- 
sults ; the trees having, at the end of two years, the 
most healthy and luxuriant appearance imaginable. 
The poultry yard is, to a careful farmer, a rich 
source of vegetable food. How much a single hen 
can contribute to increase the crops, may be seen 
from the following account, from Vauquelin. 

214. In ten days a hen eat 7474 grains of oats, 
which contained of 

Phosphate of lime, 91-8348 grains. 

Silica, 141-8616 " 

During this time two eggs were laid, 

whose shells weighed 308-814 " 

And contained phosphate of lime, 17*5975 " 

Carbonate of lime, 276-7095 " 

Gluten, 9-8725 " 

The excrements during the same 

time, gave of ashes, ..... 348-521 " 

Composed of carbonate of lime, 39-351 1 " 

Phosphate of lime, 184*5348 " 



136 MANURE. 

Silica, 124-6351 grains. 

Thus voiding in eggs and excrements, 

Carbonate of lime, 315-0606 " 

Phosphate oflime, 202-1323 " 

Now this is 17-2267 grains less than silica ; and 
in round numbers, 110 grains of phosphate, and 
316 grains of carbonate of lime more than the food 
eaten contained. Probably in all such experiments, 
where confined to food different from usual, and 
deprived of their customary habits, all animals draw 
upon, and in such cases, may be said to eat them- 
selves. The daily amount of bone dust, however, 
which one hen thus produces in her various drop- 
pings, is about 18 1-2 grains, and of carbonate of 
lime, 3-9 or an annual amount in round numbers, 
of these two salts, of 1 pound and 3 ounces. Esti- 
mating the salts only, it is found that the agricultu- 
ral value of a single hen per annum, equals the 
salts contained in 20 bushels of wheat. This places 
in a strong light, the very great efiects produced by 
a spoonful of guano, to a hill of corn. In Belgium, 
the annual value of the dung of 400 or 500 head of 
pigeons, much used in manuring flax, is $25 to $30. 

215. And here, having adverted to eggs, atten- 
tion may be called to a sadly overlooked fact. All 
around is heard the requiem of departed wheat 
fields. The burden of the chant is, carbonate of 
lime ! carbonate of lime ! The wail is, it is gone ! 
gone ! The want of this is the grand characteris- 
tic of our soil. The sole cause, in the estimation 
of some, of all our barrenness, and fruitless at- 
tempts, as they say, and would have us believe, at 
raising wheat. An egg-shell shall put such reason- 
ing or dreaming to flight. A common sized hen's 
egg weighs about 1000 grains, of which the shell is 



MANURE. 137 

about 106 grains. Two per cent, of the shell is 
albumen or animal matter ; 1 per cent, phosphate 
of lime and magnesia, and the balance or 97 per 
cent, carbonate of lime. At an egg a day, this is 
equal to 1 1-2 ounces of dry chalk per week. 
Whence comes this ? From soil, from brick-dust, 
from grain, meal, &c. But it exists not in soil as 
carbonate of lime. Animals, like plants, decom- 
pose the silicate of lime of soil, and recombining 
the base, form carbonates, to form egg-shells. Con- 
sidering the countless thousands of eggs, which are 
produced by the birds of every feather in New- 
England, how big a bit of chalk would their shells 
produce ! So of fresh water clams ; their shells 
common throughout New-England, are carbonate 
of lime. These facts speak volumes. Whenever 
birds cease to lay eggs, or clams to form shells 
then, and not till then, may it be said that New 
England soil is barren, because it contains no lime 

216. Flesh, fish, fowl, all animal solids, muscle 
gristle, skin, sinews, &c., all afford geine by putre 
faction, and evolve vast volumes of ammonia 
Salts are more or less present in all animal sub 
stances. There are uniformly found in the soft .or 
fluid portions some of the following salts : 
"] Sulphate and phosphate of lime. 
T.,. , I Phosphates of soda, magnesia & ammonia. 
o , )» Sulphate and muriate of potash and soda. 
J Carbonates of potash, soda, lime and mag- 
J nesia. 
Y ^ 1^1 ( Benzoate, \ 

<f , < Acetate, > Of potash, soda, lime. 

T Oxalate, j 

Animal ( Urate of ammonia. 
Salts. ( Lactate of ammonia. 

Oxides of iron, manganese, and silica. 



138 MANURE. 

In a word, are found in animals, the inorganic 
parts of soils, the elements of silicates, united with 
the inorganic acids which existed in the soil, added 
to the organic, produced by the animal itself. These 
salts are common to animals and plants, but except 
in bones, they form only a small part of the living 
body. 

217. In plants there are certain principles, as al- 
bumen and gluten, so like animal products, that 
they have received the name of vegeto-animal. 
But very late discoveries have proved that they are 
identical with the iibrine and albumen of animals. 
That these animal and vegetable products, are mod- 
ifications of a principle called proteine, has been al- 
luded to, page 84. The late analyses of these 
various products shed a clear light over the multi- 
form substances, from the animal kingdom, used for 
manure. They show, how like products arise from 
the decomposition of plants, and thus assimilate 
animal and vegetables in the process of forming 
composts. 

Fibrine, or the basis of flesh, or muscular fibre, al- 
bumen, and caseine, or the curd of milk and basis of 
cheese are composed as follows, by Mulder's analy- 
sis : — 





Fibrine. 

54-56 

15-72 

6-90 

i 22-83 


Albumen. 


Caseine. 


Carbon, 

Nitrogen, 

Hydrogen, 

Oxygen, 

Phosphorus, 

Sulphur, 


Of eggs. 

54-48 

15-70 

701 

22-81 


Of serum. 

54-84 

15-83 

7-09 

22-24 


54-96 
15-80 

7-15 

2^-09 



100- 100- 100- 100- 



MANURE. 



3:^ 



The corresponding products of vegetables are, 1st, 
gluten, and 2d, its peculiar principle detected by 
Liebig, called vegetable fibrine ; 3d, vegetable albu- 
men ; 4th, legumine, or vegetable caseine. The two 
last are identical in composition and properties, with 
the albumen and caseine of animals. Indeed it has 
been suggested, that animals, never create either of 
the above, but draw them ready formed from plants. 
The composition of the vegetable principles, author- 
ises such a conclusion. By the analyses of Drs. 
Scherer and Jones in the laboratory of Liebig, 
these are constituted as follows : 



Gluten. Vegetable fibrinc. Albumen. Caseine. 

. ro » • I of rye, wheat 
Average ofo trials, ^nd plants. 

Carbon, 5522 54345 * 54-86 54-138 

Nitrogen, 15-98 15-733 15-88 15-672 

Hydrogen. 7-42 7272 7*31 7-156 

Oxygen, ) 

Sulphur, } 21-38 22-647 21-95 23-034 

Phosphorus, 



100- 100- 100- 100. 

Caseine contains no phosphorus, but both animal 
and vegetable principles, comprised under the above 
names, are always combined with alkalies, lime, 
magnesia, iron, sulphur, and phosphoric acid. The 
above are the organized principles of living bodies, 
and are distinguished from aU others by their nitro- 
gen. Substances not containing this element are 
said to be organic, but not organized. 

218. The above substances, which form the great 
bulk of animals and no small part of plants, de- 
ducting their inorganic elements, compose proteine, 
whose constituents are : 



140 MANUKE. 

Carbon, 55-742 

Hydrogen, 6-827 

Nitrogen, 16-143 

Oxygen, 21-288 

100- 

This compound is the basis of the animal solids, 
and soft parts : fibrine or flesh, and albumen, are only 
compounds of this with sulphur. All the par's of 
the animal frame are modifications only of proteine. 

The peculiar princple of glue, or size, or jelly, 
called gelatine, never exists in the healthy animal 
body. It is the product of catalysis. Boih'ng wa- 
ter is the catalytic agent, and produces it from ten- 
don, ligament, cartilage, skin and bone. The com- 
position of these, will show at once. their relation to 
proteine. 

Tendon. Cartilage, or gristle from ribs. 

Carbon, 50-874 ' 50-895 

Hydrogen, 7-152 6-962 

Nitrogen, 18-320 14-908 

Oxygen, 23754 23235 

( Scherer.) 

Horny matter is equally allied to proteine. Its 
several variations have been divided into two class- 
es : 1st, soft, and 2d, compact. The first includes 
skin, or the outer part, called cuticle ; and the del- 
icate lining membrane of the internal passages, and 
sacs ; and these substances are like constituted. 
The cuticle of the sole of the foot is composed of: 

Carbon, 50-894 

Hydrogen, 6-781 

Nitrogen, 17-225 

^Yf "' \ 25 099 

Sulphur, } 

10? 

(Scherer.) 



MANURE. 141 

Compact horny matter includes hair, horn, nails, 
claws, hoofs, scales. Like all the other compounds 
of proteine, these contain sulphur, lime, magnesia, 
&;c., and from 1-2 to 2 per cent of bone earth. 
The effect of these as phosphates, has been advert- 
ed to, section 169. These all give varied portions 
of ashes. The beard gives about 0*72 per cent. ; 
blond colored hair, 3, and the black hair of a 
Mexican, 0'2 ; nails, 05 ; wool, 2, and bone, 07 
per cent, of ashes. These all evolve ammonia by 
caustic alkali, an effect, which might have been 
predicted from their composition, which is, accord- 
ing to Sehercr : 

Hair. Horn. Nails. Wood. 

Carbon, 50 652 51540 51-089 50 653 

Hydrogen, 6769 6-799 6-824 7-029 
Nitrogen, 17936 17284 16901 17710 

Oxygen, ) 24-643 24397 25-186 24-608 
feuiphur, ) 

Hair affords a substance, in addition to its pro- 
teine, and to which feathers are analogous. The 
composition of the last is, 

Carbon, &2-427 

Hydrogen, 7-213 

Nitrogen, 17 893 

Oxygen, 22-467 

Bone itself is allied to proteine by its cartilage 
which composes nearly one-third the weight, and 
which boiling water, under pressure, completely ex- 
tracts in the form of gelatine, or glue. 

219. All these varied forms of proteine may be 
tabulated so as to express at a glance, their rela- 
tion to each other, if the elements, Carbon, Hydro- 
gen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen, are expressed by C, H. 
N. 0., and to each ar^ added figures, which represent 



142^ MANURE. 

the number of atoms, entering into the compound. 
This is called chemical notation, and each set a 
chemical formula. (55.) 

Proteine, C48 H36 N^ 014 

Gelatine of tendons, C^s H^l N^^ Ql^ 

Chondrine,or gelatine of cartilage, C^^ H^'' N^ 0~^ 

Compact horny matter, C^^ h^^ N'^ O^^ 

Feathers, C48 H^S N^ O^^ 

ilarity of constitution, is, that it enables the chem- 
ist to present at one view, animal and vegeta- 
But the great practical lesson, taught by this sim- 
ble substances, as carbon, water ammonia, and car- 
buretted hydrogen. This is the view which the 
farmer takes, for he knows that these are the ele- 
ments of manure. Proteine may be resolved into : 

Hydrogen. 

p , ) 4-242-h0-707= 4-949 Carb. hydrogen. 
uarDon, ^ 51.5QQ 51-500 Carbon. 

Oxygen, 21 -388-1-2-66 1=23-949 Water. 
Nitrogen, 16- 143 -t-3-459= 19-602 Ammonia. 

93173-|-6-827=rl00- Proteine. 

This is the agricultural view, and expresses at 
once that this vast variety of substances is compar- 
ed to cow dung as 32 to 1, when used dry, as ma- 
nure. 

220. For the purposes in view, all animal and 
vegetable products, may be divided into two classes ; 
that which does, and that which does not, contain 
nitrogen. The action of these is^very distinct, on 
the elements of soil, and as manures. The first 
class putrefies, the second does not. The first class 
forms alkali, the second forms acids. The action 
of the first depends on nitrogen, that of the second 
on carbon. 



MANURE. 143 

221. The first class contains flesh in all its vari- 
eties ; blood, 3kin, sinevv, gristle, cartilage, tendons, 
hair, feathers, wool, hoofs, horns, nails, scales, and 
one-third, nearly, of bones and teeth. The second 
class contains fats and oils in all their variety. 

222. It is easily understood, then, how woollen 
rags and flocks become powerful manure. They 
aflbrd ammonia, and 100 lbs. containing 17 of ni- 
trogen, should be nearly 34 times stronger than 100 
lbs. of fresh cow dung. Connected with flocks and 
wool, there is a very vakiable product, rich in all 
the elements of manure, which is often lost or not 
used for agricultural purposes, namely, the sweat, 
or natural soap of wool. Fresh clipped wool loses 
from 35 to 45 per cent, of its weight by washing. 
This is due to a peculiar matter exuded from the 
wool, and which consists chiefly of potash, lime, 
and magnesia, united to a peculiar animal oil, form- 
ing an imperfect soap. It is remarkable that this 
soap of lime, in all other cases insoluble, is here 
soluble in water. The experience of the best 
French agriculturalists, is full of testimony to the 
good effects of this wool sweat. It has been calcu- 
lated that the washings from wool, annually con- 
sumed in France, are equal to manuring 370,000 
acres of land. 

223. Bones consist of variable proportions of car- 
tilage, bone earth, and carbonate of limiC. The 
bone earth may be estimated at one-half the weight. 
It is a peculiar phosphate of lime, containing 8 parts 
of lime to 3 of phosphoric acid. A great part of 
the value of bone as manure, depends on its cartil- 
age. The animal part of bones being one-third of 
their weight, the ammonia is equal to 8 or 10 times 
that of cow dung, while, if we regard the salts only, 
100 lbs. of bone dust, contain nearly 66 times as 



144 MANURE. 

much as an equal weight of cow clung. Such state- 
ments while they express the chemical facts, are 
almost, if not quite, supported by the testimony of 
those who have, in practical agricuhure, applied 
these concentrated animal manures. It is a com- 
mon opinion, that bones from the soap-boiler have 
lost a large portion of their animal matter. It is 
erroneous. Boiling, except under liigh pressure, 
extracts very little of the gelatine, and not all the 
fat and marrow. Heads and shoulder-blades and 
the smaller bones still contain, after boiling, 8 1-2 
per cent, of fat and tallow. If the phosphate of 
lime of such bones is dissolved out by acid, th.c an- 
imal portion remains, with all the form and bulk of 
the bone. Bones which are offered in the market, 
are quite as rich in the elements above stated, as 
are unboiled bones. The phosphate of lime is ren- 
dered quite soluable l)y its combination with gela- 
tine and albumen. The class of mixed manures, 
containing nitrogen, has thus been considered. The 
principle of their action and the foundation of iheir 
value, pointed out. The action of the second class, 
or those not containing nitrogen, remains to be ex- 
plained. 

224. All fats and oils exposed to air give off a 
great quantity of carbonic acid, and end by becom- 
ing acids. As their ultimate elements are the same 
as those of plants, it may be inferred, that under 
the influence of growing plants, fats and oils are 
decomposed and become vegetable food. But there 
is another action of fats and oils on silicates ; they 
not only let loose the alkali of silicates by the car- 
bonic acid, which they evolve, but the oils nov/ be- 
come acids, immediately combine with this alkali, 
and imperfect soaps are formed. Soaps are truly 
chemical salts, and hence we have at once a clew 
JO the action of oil and fat. 



MANURE. - 145 

225. Among the most powerful of manures in 
the class composed of geine and salts, is soot. 
There is no one substance so rich in both. Its 
composition allies it to animal solids, and is as fol- 
lows : 

Geine, 30-70 

Nitrogen, 20- 

Salts of lime, mostly chalk, 25-31 

Bone dust, . . . . p 1*50 

Salts of potash and soda, and ammonia, 6*14 

Carbon, 3-85 

Water, 12-50 



100- 

On the principles adopted for determining the 
value of manure, the salts in 100 lbs. of soot, are 
equal to 1 ton of cow dung. Its nitrogen gives it a 
value, compared with cow dung, as 40 to 1. 

226. Soot forms a capital liquid manure, for the 
floriculturist. Mixed with water, in the proportion 
of 6 quarts of soot to 1 hogshead, it has been found 
to be a most efficacious liquid, with which to water 
green-house plants ; and being not only a come-at- 
able, but a comely preparation, it may recommend 
itself to the cultivator of flowers, by these lady-like 
qualities. 

The most decided good results have been pro- 
duced in England on Stinchcombe farm, contain- 
ing 200 acres of arable land, by soot, barn yard 
manure, and sheep dung. The rotation is turnips, 
potatoes, wheat. The average produce of the po- 
tatoes, 315 bushels; of tl^^ wheat, 28 bushels per 
acre. The turnips are manured by that produced 
by 12 oxen and 5 horses, 4 of which are em- 
ployed in carting the crops to market and hauling 



146 MANURE. 

back soot, often a distance of 25 miles. The tur- 
nips ai'e fed off by sheep, and each acre, in turnips 
receives at the rate of the manure of 2000 sheep 
for one day (205). The potatoes and wheat are 
each manured with soot only, at the rate of between 
11 and 12 bushels per acre. The annual quantity 
used, being about 3000 bushels, at the cost of about 
a 6d English, say 12 1-2 cts per bushel. By this 
treatment for 30 years the quantity of crops and the 
quality of the land have improved year by year. 
Anthracite coal soot, as it may be called, contains 
no geine. It contains abundant salts of ammonia. 
Mixed with swamp muck and alkali at the rate of 
two b«shels per cord, there can be no doubt that 
the good effects of soft coal, or wood soot would be 
produced. The fine dust which collects about the 
flues of boilers when anthracite is Used, thus be- 
comes of great agricultural varue. From an accu- 
rate experiment on 106*504 pounds of coal, I find 
the quantity of this ash, collecting about flues is 5'09 
per cent, of the coal consumed. 

227, Among the mixed manures, is the salt, or 
spent ley of the soap-boiler. It seems to offer a 
natural passage, from this class to those consisting 
of salts only. To unclerstand its components, the 
chemical composition of oil and fat must be briefly 
studied. No products of life are now better under- 
stood, than the fatty bodies. They are all acids, 
combined with a peculiar organic base, which acts 
the part of an oxide. This is never obtained except 
in combination with oxygen and water. In this 
state it has long been known under the name of 
glycerine. The acids aombined with it, are stea- 
ric, ma2;aric and oleic. Bv the union of these acids 
with glycerine, stearine and margarine, or fats, and 
oleine or oil is produced. In soap making, the alkali 



MANURE. 147 

used, decomposes stearine, and oleine, combining 
with their acids, which thus are converted into ste- 
arates, margarates, and oleates of alkaU, or soap, 
while the glycerine remains free in the spent ley 
with the salts, which that contains. 

228. The proportion of glycerine, in fat and oil, 
is about 8 per cent. Its composition is — 

Carbon, 40-07 f These are in 1 Carbon, 24-77 

I such proportion 

Oxygen, 51-00 \ ^^^^ZZZTi [or Car. hyd. 17-85 

■r-r , ^ r^^ I carburetted hy- __. __, _,^ 

Hydrogen, 8-92 [drogen. J Water, 57-37 

Glycerine is transparent and liquid, and w^as cal- 
led the sw^eet principle of oils, from its sweet taste. 

229. The glycerine as thus the organic, or geine 
part of salt ley. Its proportion in tliat will vary, if 
the spent ley is boiled, as is usual, upon a fresh 
portion of tallow, which adds its quantity of glyce- 
rine, in proportion to the alkali in the ley. 

230. The salts are various, and depend on the 
kind of alkali used to form the ley. The alkali is 
derived from barilla, from soda or white ash, from 
potash, or from ashes. Hence no general state- 
ment can be given, which shall express the value 
of spent ley salts. That some idea may be form- 
ed, of its components, it may be divided into two 
kinds : 1st, that produced from soft soap, or from 
ashes, or potash ; 2dly, that from hard soap, baril- 
la, or soda ash. A boil of 2000 lbs. of soft soap, 
requires 150 bushels of ashes, and its spent Ifey 
contains, in addition to a little free potash, the fol- 
lowing salts, derived from ashes : 

130 lbs. of Sulphate of potash, 
6 " of Muriate of potash, 
36 " of Silicate of potash, 



148 MANURE. 

allowing the ashes to have been a mixture of oak, 
bass, and birch woods. Besides these, in the pro- 
cess of soap making, in order to make the soap 
" grain, " common salt is added. A chemical 
change is thus induced, the potash soap, is changed 
to soda soap, or the soft to hard. The soda of the 
salt entering the soap is replaced by the potash, 
which combines with the acid of the salt, that is 
chlorine or muriatic acid. In other words, com- 
mon salt, or chloride of sodium, or muriate of soda 
is changed to chloride of potassium, or muriate of 
potash, which is thus added to the spent ley. The 
proportion of salt added, varies, but it may be sta- 
ted in general, 7 bushels, or 500 lbs. to 150 bush- 
els of ashes. In a boil, then, of 2000 lbs. of soap, 
1200 lbs. of fat or tallow, containing 100 lbs. of 
glycerine, 

150 bushels of ashes, 
7 bushels or salt, 

afford about 200 gallons of spent ley. This con- 
tains the glycerine and salts above, (230) and af- 
fords per gallon, 

Geine or glycerine, 1-2 lb. 

^ , ( Muriate of potash, 5 1-3 lbs. 

' ( Sulphate of potash, 1 1-3 lbs. 

Silicate of poiash, 2 1-2 oz. 

231. The spent ley from soda soap, contains the 
sulphate and muriate of soda of the soda ash, which 
rarelv amounts to 12 per cent. As less salt is here 
added, the spent ley is less rich in salts. In aboil 
of 2000 pounds of hard soap, 600 weight of white 
ash are used. Including the one bushel of salt usu- 
ally added, the spent ley contains, 



MANURE. 149 

Sulphate of soda, 84 lbs. or per gallon, 6 3-4 oz. 
Muriate of soda, 106 '' " 1-2 lb. 

Glycerine, 100 " " 1-2 lb. 

232. The value of spent ley has been tested for 
a series of years. It has shown its good effects on 
grass lands, for four or five years after its applica- 
tion. There is great advantage in carrying it out 
upon snow. It has then the effect of converting 
any carbonate of ammonia in the snow' , into sal am- 
moniac, or a volatile into a fixed salt. 

233. When it is thus understood, on what the 
value of spent ley depends, it would seem probable, 
that the farmer may himself prepare it, and unless 
he resides in the neighborhood of a soap-boiler, at 
a cheaper rate than he can buy and cart home this 
liquid manure. A hogshead of spent ley, of 100 
gallons, contains, if from ashes, 

50 pounds of glycerine or geine, 
53 " muriate of potash, 

13 " sulphate of potash. 

The salts may easily be supplied. It becomes a 
highly interesting question, whether the glycerine 
has any specific action, any action which the light 
of chemistry may not kindle in similar substances. 
By reference to (228) its chemical constitution, ap- 
proaches geine, and they are here presented side 
by side. 

Glycerine. Geine of Soil. 

Carbon, 40-07, 58-00 

Hydrogen, 8-92, 2-18 

Oxygen, 51-00, ' 3990 

234. The glycerine resolves itself into water, 
free carbon and carburetted hydrogen, or the gas 
of marshes or stagnant pools ; the geine into cai'- 



150 MANURE. 

bon and water. In the series of changes which 
they may undergo, let it be supposed, that carburet- 
ted hydrogen gas, is evolved by glyceritie. There 
is no reason for assuming, as do some, that carbon- 
ic acid, is the only source of the carbon of plants. 
The volumes of carburetted hydrogen produced in 
the decay of plants, may be intended as well as car- 
bonic acid for their nutriment. Suppose, of which 
there is no doubt, that carburetted hydrogen of gly- 
cerine, contributes to this effect, there remains then 
free carbon, wliich being perfectly insoluble and 
changeless, acts only by condensing gases in its 
pores. 

235. Geine, by tillage, air and moisture, evolves 
also, carbonic acid. As gas, no one will deny that 
it thus affords carbon to plants ; its carbonic acid is 
absorbed and its carbon assimilated, and hence, if 
either glycerine or geine afford carbon, the circum- 
stances under which they may be applied to the 
land, are less favorable to the production of carbu- 
retted hydrogen, than of carbonic acid. The bal- 
ance then is in favor of geine. 

236. There are two circumstances wherein geine 
and glycerine differ. The latter is soluble to any 
extent in water, it is applied to the land in spent 
ley, already dissolved. The action so evident, is 
due to one of two causes, or to their joint action. 
Spent ley, acts either by its organic, or by its inor- 
ganic part, by its glycerine, or by its salts. Those 
who take the ground, that humus or- geine, never is 
taken up by plants, will then attribute all the deci- 
ded good effects of spent ley to its salts. Glauber's 
and common salts applied in equal quantity, to that 
contained in soda spent ley should produce equally 
good effects. It is well known that such is not the 
fact. Nor will those who maintain this doctrine, 



MANUKE. 161 

admit that glycerine acts by its evolving gases, for 
then, an equal weight of peat would answer. It is 
well known that such is not the fact. 

237. If spent ley then. acts neither by its salts, 
nor its evolved ga^, it acts by the perfectly dissolv- 
ed state of its glycerine. That such is the case, 
admits not of a doubt, and goes to show that plants 
appropriate the geine or humus of soil, by absorb- 
ing it as geine or geates. 

238. The spent ley acts, both by its salts and its 
geine. The action of salts has been explained. 
The soluble state of geine is the most important 
fact to be borne in mind, if it is atlempied to make 
spent ley on a farm. Swamp muck, or peat, ashes, 
and common salt, will afford all the elements of 
spent ley, and the following may be proposed, as 
an imitation of that from soda soap. 

Fine dry snuffy peat, 50 lbs. 

Salt, 1-2 bushel. 

Ashes, 1 " 

Water, 100 gallons 

Mix the ashes and peat well together, sprinkling 
with water to moisten a little, let the heap lie for 
a week. Dissolve the salt in the water, in a hogs- 
head, and add to the brine, the mixture of peat and 
ashes, stirring well the while. Let it be stirred oc- 
casionally for a week, and it will be tit for use. 
Apply it as spent ley, grounds and all. Both ashes 
and salts may be doubled and trebled, with advan- 
tage, if convenient. The mixture of ley must be 
used before it begins to putrefy ; this occurs in 
three or four weeks. It then evolves sulphuret- 
ted hydrogen gas, or the smell of gas of rotten 
eggs ; this arises from the decomposition of the 
sulphates in the water and ashes, by the vegetable 



152 MANUHE. 

matter. A portion of the geine is thus deposited 
from the solution. 

239. Having thus considered the class of mixed 
manures, or those composed of geine and sahs, 
those consisting of salts only, are to be now ex- 
plained. They are next in value to the mixed 
manures. They are chrefly the liquid evacuations 
of animals, and when artificially combined with 
geine, their value exceeds that of the solid evacua- 
tions. These liquids equal, in fact, the mixed ma- 
nures of the most fertilizing energy. The liquid 
evacuations are truly salts only, dissolved in water ; 
but they are salts of a peculiar character in many 
cases, and are formed of an animal acid. This is 
it which renders a detailed account of these ma- 
nures interesting to the farmer. It- is not enough 
for this purpose to refer the action of these liquids 
to the general- effect of salts on mineral manures. 

240. The peculiar animal acid to which refer- 
ence has been made, becomes like nitric acid in 
nitrates, the food of plants. The element from 
which it is derived gives a marked and highly valu- 
able character to tlie liquid evacuations of the farm 
yard, and household. This peculiar animal princi^ 
pie is urea. It may be obtained from these liquids, 
in transparent, but colorless crystals of a faint but 
peculiar odor. Cold water dissolves more than its 
weight, and boiling water an indefinite quantity of 
crystals of urea. The pure crystals undergo no 
change, when dissolved in pure water, but if they 
are mixed with the other ingredients of the urine, 
decomposition rapidly ensues, and they are resolved 
almost entirely into carbonate of ammonia. Alka- 
lies and alkaline earths induce similar changes on 
urea. The practical value of this fact will be easily 
understood. 



MANURE. 153 

241. Pure urea has no distinct alkaline proper- 
ties. It unites with aqua fortis, or nitric acid, and 
forms a sparingly soluble salt, composed of about 
equal parts of each of its ingredients. 

242. Urea is composed, according to Dr. Prout, 
of carbon 19"99, oxygen 2666, hydrogen 6*66, ni- 
trogen 46*66. These elements are so beautifully 
balanced, that they afford only carbonic acid and 
ammonia ; though the chemistry of every reader, 
may not understand how these elements produce 
cyanic acid and ammonia. The salt cyanate of 
ammonia, has actually been formed by modern 
chemistry, which has thus succeeded in forming a 
true organic product, or product of living action, 
or rather of chemical action guided by living prin- 
ciple. In all animal evacuations containing urea, 
that may be considered, as so much carbonate of 
ammonia of the shops. 

243. The peculiar animal acid which has been 
mentioned as forming so essential a part in these 
liquid excretions, is called uric acid. It is not, like 
urea, changed by exposure, into ammonia. It con- 
tains a large portion of nitrogen, which, under the 
influence of growing plants, is let loose, and may 
then form ammonia. Its composition is as follows : 
carbon 36-lJ, hydrogen 2*34, oxygen 28'19, nitro- 
gen 33-36. 

The peculiar principles of the liquid evacuations 
having been explained, their constitution may be 
now stated. They are, it will be remembered, at 
the head of the class of manures composed of salts. 
First, the liquid evacution of cattle, what is its agri- 
cultural value as a manure ? Its composition will 
form the answer. 

Cow's urine was long ago examined by Brandt, 
whose results, have formed the basis of all calcula- 



154 BIANURE. 

tions of its value for almast half a century. It is 
evidently defective. The more exact analysis of 
cattle urine, by Sprengel, who has devoted particu- 
lar care to the subject, gives, as the average of 
many trials, the following, in 1000 lbs. 

Water, '. . 92624 

Urea, 4000 

Albumen, *10 

Mucus or slime, 1-90 

Hippuric acid, i combined with pot- ^ '90 
Lactic acid, > ash,soda and ammo- < 5"16 
Carbonic acid, j nia, forming salts, ( 2*56 

Ammonia, 2'05 

Potash, 6-64 

Soda, 5-54 

Sulphuric acid, \ combined with so- ( 4*05 
Phosphoric acid, > da,lime& magne- < *70 

Chlorine, j sia, forming salts, ( 2'72 

Lime, *65 

Magnesia, *36 

Alumina, '02 

( )xide of iron, "04 

Oxide of manganese, *01 

Silica, *36 



. 100000 
Let this now be compared with the standard of 
value, cow dung. 100 lbs. of that afford 2 lbs. of 
carbonate of ammonia ; while this evacuation gives 
4 lbs. of ammonia in its urea, besides that in its 
other ammoniacal salts. 

244. The quantity of liquid manure produced by 
one cow annually, is equal to fertilizing 1 1-4 acres 
of ground, producing effects as durable as do the 
solid evacuations. A cord of loam, saturated with 
urine, is equal to a cord of the best rotted dung. 



MAIVURE. 155 

If the liquid and the solid evacuations including the 
litter, are kept separate, and soaking up the liquid 
by loam, it has been found they will manure land, 
in proportion by bulk of 7 liquid to 6 solid, while 
their actual value is as 2 to 1. 

245. 100 lbs. of cow's urine afford about 8 lbs. of 
the most powerful salts which have ever been used 
by farmers. The simple statement then, in figures, 
of difference in value of the solid and liquid evacu- 
ations of a cow, should impress upon all the impor- 
tance of saving the last in preference to the first. 
Let both be saved. If the liquids contained natu-* 
rally, geine, they might be applied alone. It is the 
want of that guiding principle which teaches that 
salts and geine should go hand in hand, which has 
sometimes led to results in the application of the 
liquor, which have given this substance a bad name. 

246. It has been proved that the ammoniacal 
salts of urine have a forcing power on vegetation. 
The value of ammonia was long ago understood by 
Davy, and its carbonate was his favorite application. 
Plants watered with a simple solution of sulphate 
of ammonia, an abundant salt in cow's urine, are 
15 days earlier than those watered with pure wa- 
ter. Grass land watered with urine only, yields 
nearly double to that not so manured. In a garden 
on land of very poor quality, near Glasgow, urine 
diluted with water, nearly doubled the grass. But 
upon wheat, sown on clay land, it did no good ; it 
injured barley, potatoes gi'ew rank and watery, and 
on turnips the eflects were only half as good, as 
mere unfermented dung. The circumstance of the 
soil in this last case, was probably a deficiency of 
geine. 

247. The liquid evacuation of the horse is com- 
posed of 



156 MANURE. 

Water, 94* 

Urea, -7 

Chalk, 1-1 

parbonate of soda, '9 

Hippiirate of soda, 2'4 

Muriate of potash, '9 

The hippuric acid is not peculiar to the horse. 
The urine of most herbiverous animals contains 
hippurate, formerly called benzoate of soda, its 
acid having the fragrance of gum benzoin. If man 
takes benzoic acid, hippuric replaces uric acid in 
the urine. According to the composition, horse 
stale, pound for pound, is equal to the value of 
cow dung. Sprengel found the urine of sheep to 
afford, in 1000 lbs.. 

Water, 980 

Urea, with some albumen, 28 

Salts of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, 
with traces of silica, alumina, iron and 
manganese, 12 

1000 

No animal affords more urine than the hog. 
Owing to a peculiar volatile and unexamined sub- 
stance, it gives plants and roots a disagreeable taste. 
Fed on grains and bran, the urine in 1000 lbs. af- 
fords. 

Water, 926- 

Urea, with a little slime and albumen, 56*40 
Salts, common salt, muriate of potash, 

gypsum, chalk, Glauber's salts, . 17*60 

1000- 

248. But rich as are the liquid evacuations of 



MANURE. 157 

the stable and cow yard, they are surpassed by 
those of the farmer's own dweUing, especially when 
it is considered with what ease these last may be 
saved. According to Dr. Thomson, 1000 parts of 
this substance, the human liquid evacuation, con- 
tain 42 1-2 lbs. nearly of salts, which are, 

Sal ammoniac, '459 

Sulphate of potash, 2*112 

Muriate of potash, 3-674 

Common salt, 5*060 

Phosphate of soda, 4*267 

Bone dust, (phosphate of lime,) . . . "209 

Acetate of soda, 2*770 

Urate of ammonia, -298 

Urea with coloring matter, 23*640 

42*489 
Water, 957*511 

There is scarcely a single element in this liquid 
which is not essentially an ingredient in all plants. 

In every 100 lbs. of cow urine, are, 

Urea, 4* lbs. 

Of horse urine, '70 '' 

Of human urine, 2*36 " 

Of sheep urine, 2*80 " 

Of hog urine, 5.64 " 

It is at once seen, how valuable are swine, as man- 
ufacturers' of manure. 

249. The urea being called equal to ammonia, it 
is seen that the anmioniacal salts in human urine 
are very nearly the same as those in cow dung, but 
its effects in actual practice are found to be nearly 
double those in cow dung. The, actual amount of 
salts in 100 parts of human, cow, and horse dung, 



158 MANURE. 

is in round numbers, 1 per cent, while in the liquids 
it averages 5'88, being in the cow 7*4, and in the 
human 4*24 per cent., horse 6. 

250. All urine of course varies with the food of 
the animal, the season, and its age. White turnips 
give a weaker liquor than Swedish. Green grass 
is still worse. Distillers' grains are said to be bet- 
ter than either of these. The more water the ani- 
mal drinks, the poorer the urine. Doubtless the 
liquids of fattening kine are richer in ammonia dur- 
ing this period, for it contains a part of that nitrogen 
not carried away in milk. In winter, urine con- 
tains much less urea than in summer, sometimes 
only one-half. Putrefaction changes urea to am- 
monia. The time required for this varies. Urine 
putrefying for a month, contains double the ammo- 
nia of fresh urine. It does not wholly decompose in 
a month ; but during all this time, gives off ammonia. 
Unless then mixed with loam, or peat, or swamp 
muck, or where kept in tanks with its bulk of wa- 
ter, it loses ammonia. Urine is fully ripe, when it 
contains neither caustic ammonia, nor urea. What- 
ever may he the food, it is evident from the above 
statements, that rivers of riches run away from 
farms, from want of attention to saving that which 
ordinarily is allowed to be wasted. 

251. Each man evacuates annually, enough salts, 
to manure an acre of land. Some form of geine 
only is to be added to keep the land in heart, if the 
farmer has but the heart to collect and use that 
which many allow, like the flower unseen, " to 
waste its sweetness on the desert air." 

252. But with all the farmer's care, with every 
convenience for collecting and preserving these ani- 
mal products, still the amount which can be so col- 
lected, is often wholly inadequate to the wants of 



MAMURE. 159 

the farmer of small means. All these accumula- 
tions presuppose a goodly stock of animals on the 
farm. This again is limited hy the means of keep- 
ing, and so one influences the other. The farmer 
wants some source of manure, which while it pro- 
duces the salts and geine of an unlimited amount 
of stock, hogs and hens, shall yet require no more 
barn room, fodder or team, than every man who 
means that his hands and lands shall shelter, feed, 
and clothe him, can easily command. 



160 AKTIFICIAL MANUKE. 



CHAPTER VII. 
ARTIFICIAL MANURES, AND IRRIGATION. 

253. The class of salts as manure, is to be dis- 
tinguished from the salts, called mineral manures, 
by this circumstance, that they contain large por- 
tions of peculiar animal products, called urea, and 
uric acid. These atford ammonia, in large quan- 
tity, by their decomposition. Having considered 
the relative value of the two classes of manure, 
those composed of salts, and of salts and geine, that 
consisting chiefly of geine, is now to be explained. 

254. First and foremost in this class, is swamp 
muck, mud, or peat. This class includes also, dry 
leaves, dry vegetables of all sorts ; ploughing in of 
green or dry crops, irrigation. These are fruitful 
topics. The principles only of their action, can be 
pointed out. The application of the principle, must 
be left to the farmer. The why, of things has been 
shown ; the how, must be deduced from the why, 
by practical men. 

255. Peat is too well known, to render it neces- 
sary to say, that it is the result of that spontaneous 
change in vegetable matter, which ends in geine. 
Peat is, among manures consisting chiefly of geine, 
what bone dust is, among manures, consisting of 

t - 



ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 



161 



animal matter. Peat is highly concentrated vege- 
table food. When the state in which this food ex- 
ists, is examined, it is found not only partly cooked, 
but seasoned. 

256. Peat consists of soluble and insoluble geine 
and salts. The proportion of these several ingre- 
dients must be known, before the value of peat can 
be compared with similar constituents in cow dung. 
This proportion is exhibited in the following table 
of constitution of Massachusetts peat per 100 parts 

i<oluhle Insoluble Total Salts and 
Getne. Gdne. Gfine. 

14- 

26- 

48-80 

34- 

3S30 

32- 



Locality. 

Dracut, 

Sunderland, 

AVestborough, 

Fladley, 
5. Northampton, 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 
10. 

A vera ere. 



12- 
10- 
33- 
46- 



Geine. 

72- 

56-60 

43-60 

60- 

4415 

54-90 

6085 

49-45 

59- 

46-80 



85-60 
92-40 
94- 
82-45 

86-90 

72-85 

59-45 

92- 

9280 



Silicates. 

14. 
14-40 

7-60 

6- 

17-55 
13 10 
27-15 
40-55 

8- 

7-20 



29 41 55-03 84-44 15 55 



11. Watertown, S."ud 5-10 890 14- 86- 

12. Danvers, l^^l ' 8-10 650 1460 8440 

257. Under the general name of peat, are com- 
prised several varieties, which may be distinguished 
as, 1st. Peat, the compact substance generally 
known and used for fuel, under this name. 2d. 
Turf, or swamp muck, by which is to be under- 
stood, the paring which is removed before peat is 
dug. It is a less compact variety of peat. It is 
common in all meadows and swamps, and includes 
the hassocks. Both these varieties are included in 



162 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 

the above, from No. 1 to No. 10. It includes also, 
the mud of salt-marshes. 3d. Pond mud, the slushy 
material, found at the bottom of ponds when dry, 
or in low grounds, the wash of higher lands. This 
seldom contains more than 20 per cent, of geine. 
Nos. 11 and 12, are of this description. 

258. These varieties comprise probably a fair 
sample of all the peat and swamp muck and pond 
mud, which occur in the various parts of the coun- 
try. The results stated, (256) are those of the sev- 
eral varieties, when dried, at a temperature of 240° 
F. The composition of peat ashes has been al-» 
luded to (163). They contain, in fact, all the in- 
organic principles of plants, which are insoluble, 
with occasional traces of the soluble alkaline sul- 
phates, and of free alkali. 

259. It is well known that all peat shrinks by 
drjang, and when perfectly dried, at 240*^ F. loses 
from 73 to 97 per cent, of water. When allowed 
to drain as dry, as it will, it still contains, about 2-3 
of its weight of water. It shrinks from 2-3 to 3-4 
of its bulk. A cord wet becomes 1-4 to 1-3 of a 
cord when dry. To compare its value with cow 
dung, equal bulks must be taken, and hence, to dry 
peat, a bulk of water must be supposed to be added, 
in proportion above stated, or still better, because 
easier done, the pile of dry peat is to be estimated 
by the pit left after digging. It will be foimd on 
the above data, that 100 parts of fresh dug peat, of 
average quality, contain — 

Water, 85' 

Salts of lime, '50 

Silicates, '50 

Geine, 14- 

100- 



ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 163 

This does not differ much from fresh cow dung, 
so far as salts, geine, and water are concerned. 
The sahs of hme, are actually about the same, 
while the alumina, oxide of iron, magnesia, in the 
silicates added to the salts of lime, make the tolal 
amount of salts in round numbers, equal that of 
cow dung. 

If the bulks of these are compared, it will be 
found, that at 90 lbs. per bushel, full measure, and 
103 bushels being allowed to a cord, — each con- 
tains and weighs as follows, in pounds : 



Weight Soluble Insoluble Total 


Salts of 


Geme. Giine. Geine. 


Lime. 


Dung, 9289 128 1288 1416 


92 


No.9peatoftable,9216 376 673 1049 


91 


No. 10'' " 9216 519 529 1048 


81 


A cord of pond mud, (No. 11,) weighs 


when 



dug, 6117 lbs. and contains solid matter, 3495 lbs. 
composed of geine, 495 lbs.; of silicates and salts, 
3005 lbs. The salts of lime in pond mud, are 2 1-2 
per cent. 

260. The salts and geine of a cord of peat are 
equal to the manure of one cow for three months. 
It is certainly a very curious coincidence of results, 
that nature herself, should have prepared a sub- 
stance, whose agricultural value approaches so near 
cow dung, the type of manures. This subject may 
have been now sufficiently explained. Departing 
from cow dung and wandering through all the va- 
rieties of animal and vegetable manures, we land 
in a peat-bog. The substance under our feet is 
analyzed, and found to be cow dung, without its 
musky breath of cow odor, or the power of gene- 
rating ammonia. That process is over — a part of 
the ammonia remains, still evident to the senses by 
adding caustic potash. It exists in part, either as a 



164 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 

component of crenic and apocrenic acid, or com- 
bined with geine, or as phosphate of ammonia, and 
vvhen the presence of ammonia is added to the salts, 
whose existence has already been pointed out, it 
may be said, that peat approaches dung, moistened 
with the liquid evacuation of the animal. 

261. The power of producing alkaline action, on 
the insoluble geine, is alone wanted to make peat 
good cow dung. Reviewing the various matters, 
from whatever source derived, solid or hquid, which 
are used as manure, all possess one common prop- 
erty, that of generating ammonia. The conclusion 
then of this whole matter, is this ; the value of all 
manures, depends on salts, geine, and ammonia ; 
and it is directly in proportion to tlie last ; it fol- 
lows, that any substance affording these elements, 
may be substituted for manure. 

262. The great question comes, how is to be 
given to peat, a substance which, in all its other 
characters, is so nearly allied to cow dung, that 
jacking element ammonia ? How is that to be sup- 
plied ? Without it, cow dung itself would be no 
better than peat, nay, not so good; for in peat, 
nearly one-half of the geine, is ah'eady in a soluble 
state. Passing by the fact, already alluded to, that 
peat contains traces of ammonia, which, evolved 
when treated with caustic potash, exerts its usual 
action ; it may be added, that possibly in the pro- 
cess of vegetation, when the deponiposing power of 
the living plant is exerted on peat, and the silicates, 
caustic potash is produced, and ammonia evolved. 
Considering peat as a source of nitrogen only, it is 
evident that the action of alkali is of the highest 
practical importance. 

263. In this part of the subject of manure, prob- 
abilities and possibilities are no longer admissible. 



ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 165 

There are two facts well established by experience, 
relating to the action of ammonia in dung. First, it 
has been shown (166) that dung produces nitrates. 
Porous substances and alkali, possess the power of 
forming nitrates ; these substances, alkali and po- 
rous substances, act like spongy platina, they in- 
duce a catalytic power, and the consequence is, that 
the elements of the air, oxygen and nitrogen unite, 
and form nitric acid, this combines with the alkali, 
and consequently nitrates are produced. The oth- 
er well established fact, in relation to the action of 
ammonia in dung, is the power of dissolving and 
converting geine, which has been explained in 
Chap. IV. The most valuables of these two prop- 
erties is that of producing soluble geine. The 
formation of nhrates may be quite, and ordinarily is 
prevented. It is the alkaline action which is sought. 
264. By then, the addition of alkali to peat, it is 
put into the state, which ammonia gives to dung. 
The question then arises, how much alkali is to be 
added to swamp muck or peat, to convert that into 
cow dung? Recurring to the doctrine of chemical 
proportions, whose value to the farmer is thus made 
evident, it will be remembered that the equivalent 
of potash and soda, that is, that portion of one 
vwhich can take the place of the other, is as 2 to 3 ; 
that is, 2 parts of soda are equal to 3 of potash. 
If either of these is compared with ammonia, it will 
be found that one part of ammonia is nearly equal to 
two of soda. When these substances are met with 
in commerce, it is in the state of salts ; as carbon- 
ate of ammonia of the shops, or white ash or pot- 
ash and pearlash. The equivalent of these, is de- 
duced from determining the pure alkali of each, ad- 
ding the equivalent of carbonic acid, and to this the 
usual impurity. It is found that 



166 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 

59 parts of ammonia, are equal to 
58 " soda, or white ash, or to 

72 " 1st quality pot or pearlash, or 

86 " 2d quality pot or* pearlash. 

265. For all agricultural purposes, is may be 
considered, that salts of hartshorn, or carbonate of 
ammonia, and white or soda ash, are equal, pound 
for pound, and that pots and pearls may be taken at 
one-half more. 

266. If all the nitrogen in dung, becomes am- 
monia' then as has been shown, (187) each 100 lbs. 
affords 2 lbs. 2 oz. Discarding fractions, let it be 
called 2 lbs. Hence, if to 100 lbs. fresh dug peat, 
there are added 2 lbs. soda ash, or 3 lbs. of pot or 
pearl ashes, all the good effects of real cow dung 
will be produced. Peat or muck, thus requires 2 
per cent, of soda ash, or 3 per cent, of potash. 

267. By (259) a cord of green peat weighs 
9216 lbs.; 2 per cent, are 184 lbs. Flence a cord 
requires that amount of soda ash, or 276 lbs. of pot- 
ash. But if the peat is quite dry, so as to have lost 
3-4 of its bulk, then 736 lbs. of soda ash, or 1104 
lbs. potash will be necessary. Two per cent, of al- 
kali seems enormous. It is stated, in the hope that 
it may lead to experiments on the free use of alka- 
li. But as it will be hereafter shown, that this is 
to be reduced by mixing with loam or other matter, 
this quantity, even if applied to one acre, will prob- 
ably produce very good effects. It has repeatedly 
been proved for other purposes, that a cord of fresh 
dug peat neutralizes 100 lbs. of soda ash, or 400 
lbs. to a dry cord. Further, dry peat, by boiling 
with, neutralizes, 12 1-2 per cent, of its weight of 
potash, and in actual practice, alkali to the amount 
of 6 per cent, of the weight of the geine, in pond 



ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 167 

mud, has been used. It would therefore appear to 
be safe to use the theoretical proportion. 

268. But the nitrogen in cow dung, does not all 
tell. It is impossible but that some portion of the 
elements of ammonia, enter into other combina- 
tions, and part also escapes as gas. Besides, it is 
not all brought at once into action, and hence, a less 
portion of alkali than above indicated, may be used. 
It is probable that not a third of the ammonia acts. 
Let it be taken at that quantity. Then the equiva- 
lents are 100 lbs. fresh peat, and 10 2-3 oui^s so- 
da, or 1 lb. of potash, or 1 per cent, of the weight 
of the peat in commercial potash. * 

269. This proportion will allow in round num- 
bers, to every cord of fresh dug peat, 92 lbs. pot or 
pearl ashes, or 61 lbs. of soda, or 16 to 20 bushels 
of common house ashes. 

Having no guide here, from experience, of the 
quantity, which may be used per acre, yet in order 
to arrive at conclusions, which could be I'ecom- 
mended safely, the alkali has been calculated in the 
quantity of saltpetre which has been used, with such 
signal success by O. M. Whipple, Esq., of Lowell, 
no less distinguished for the good sense with which 
he undertakes an experiment, than for the public 
spirit which urges him onward to its successful 
conclusion. On the principles which have been 
developed, when saltpetre is used, the whole alkali 
is let loose by the| action of the growing plant. 
The experience of Mr. Whipple, is a guide to the 
quantity of alkali which may be safely used. He 
has used from 50 to 150 lbs. saltpetre per acre. 
The real alkali in saltpetre, may be called 1-2 of 
its weight; or the real alkali used, has been from 
25 to 75 lbs.=86 1-2 lbs. and 109 1-2 lbs. pure 
carbonate, or^in round numbers, an average, of comr 



168 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 

mercial 1st and 2d quality, of 49 to 149 lbs. per 
acre — giving an average of 99 lbs. which is nearly 
1 per cent, of the weight of a cord of green peat, 
which agrees with the estimate (268). If then, 
this is mixed with the usual proportion of geine, 
which the dung used contains, equally good effects 
per acre ought to be produced. 

270. There are other practical facts, which may 
help to a solution of the question, how much alkali 
is to be added to a cord of peat. According to the 
experypQce of Mr. Phimiey of Lexington, an author- 
ity which may not be questioned, a cord of green 
dung converts twice its bulk of peat, into a manure, 
of equal value to itself — that is a cord of clear sta- 
ble dung, composted with two of peat, forms a ma- 
nure of equal value to three cords of green dung. 
Indeed, the permanent efiects of this compost, ac- 
cording to Mr Phinney, exceed those of stable dung. 
On this fact, 2 lbs. of ammonia in 100 of cow 
dung, should convert 200 lbs. of fresh dug peat in- 
to good cow, dung. The equivalents of these, as 
has been shown, (265), are 2 lbs. of soda ash, or 3 
lbs. of potash. Allowing the gaseous ammonia to 
be divided equally among the 300 lbs. of dung and 
peat, this is in proportion of 10 2-3 oz. of soda ash, 
or 1 lb. of potash to 100 lbs. of fresh peat. Now 
this calculation, deduced from actual experiment, 
confirms the theoretical proportions (268,) suppo- 
sing only 1-3 of the nitrogen acts, though that was 
made before the author met with the statement of 
Mr. Phinney. 

271. There is a coincidence here of proportions, 
which makes it quite certain, that the quantity re- 
commended, (269) is a perfectly safe basis for 
agricultural use. By theory, the proportions are, 1 
cord peat, 61 lbs. soda &sh, 93 lbs. potash. As de« 



ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 169 

duced from the compounds of dung and peat, 61 
lbs. soda ash, 92 lbs. potash. This proportion gives 
each cord of peat a value equal to that of cow 
dung; if 1-3 of its nitrogen acts, it maybe com- 
posted, as that is, with loam or still better, mixed 
up at once with its proportion of peat.- If this is 
done, then the result will lie, in round numbers. 1 
cord of fresh dug peat, — 20 lbs. of soda ash, 30 lbs. 
potash. In March, 1849, the author, in a letter 
addressed to the commissioner for the agricultural 
survey of Massachusetts, threw out the fi^owing 
hint, which was published in the second r^brt of 
of Mr. Colman : <jf' 

"Take 100 lbs. of peat as sold or the fine part 
from the bottom of a peat stack — at any rate, bruise 
the peat fine, put it into a potash kettle, aiid 2 1-2 
lbs. of white ash, and 130 gallons of water ; boil 
for a few hours : let it settle, dip otf the clear for 
use, add 100 lbs. more of peat, 2 1-2 lbs. white 
ash, fill up with water, as much as you have dip- 
ped off, boil again, settle and dip oif. This may 
be repeated five times. How much oftener I know 
not ; probably as long as the vegetable part of peat 
remains. The clear liquor is an alkaline solution 
of geine. The three first boilings contain geine, 
alumine, iron, magnesia, and sulphate or phosphate 
of alkali. The dark colored solution contains about 
half an ounce per gallon, of vegetable matter." 

" It is to be applied by watering grass lands. 
The ' dregs' may be mixed up with the manure or 
spread as a top dressing ; or put in the hill. Ex- 
perience will teach — I only suggest." 

The principle which should guide the farmer in 
the making of artificial manure, has now been con- 
sidered. The author of these pages is not a practi- 
cal farmer, agriculture is not his pursuit, and he 



170 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 

has studied his chemistry, only as a recreation 
from the daily duties of life. He has thrown out 
suggestions, the result of researches, undertaken 
with reference to a totally different object, and 
these suggestions have been acted upon by practical 
men, whose results confirm his previous anticipa- 
tions. He has no theory on this subject to main- 
tain, his opinions must stand or fall by practice, 
speak for themselves. Yet he is not altogether 
indifferent to the practical results which may follow 
his sujtgestions, and he should consider that he had 
inflic^i a serious injury on agriculture by the pub- 
licatidlf of erroneous opinions. When a man's 
character is to be established in a court of evidence, 
what is the rule? The good old English rule? 
To call upon the bystanders, the- country present, 
taken indiscriminately from all who may have 
known tlie person. Do not summon persons whose 
interest may throw a shadow of suspicion, on the 
testimony of the witness. And so here, let it be 
proved if it can be, whether the principles here ad- 
vanced, are of practical value, by calling upon the 
stand, those gentlemen who have tested his opin- 
ions, and of some of whose operations and results 
he was ignorant, till he met with them in the agri- 
cultural publications of the day, or in accidental 
conversation; others have been requested to state 
by letter their results, after these pages were pre- 
pared for the press. The evidence on this point is 
contained in the appendix to this volume. 

272. Attention might here be called, to the 
extended use of peat, composted with lime and ani- 
mal manure ; but it will be observed, that it is 
wished to direct the thoughts at this time, to a com- 
post or artificial manure, without lime or animal 
manure. The author does not go for lime, but for 



ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 171 

soluble alkali. Carbonate of lime alone, is not ex- 
pected to produce immediate results, and seldom 
has, nor can be expected to produce visible effects 
in the first year of" its application. The why and 
the wherefore of this has been already explained, 
and it is m.erely adverted to now to guard against 
any inference favorable to the action of lime, be- 
ing deduced from the following facts. Mr. George 
Robbins, of Watertown, is an extensive manufac- 
turer of soap and candles and of starch, and still bet- 
ter, a man who employs the refuse of these trades, in 
enrichnig and gladdening his land. For four yeare, 
and it is believed his crops will compare with any 
of the best cultivatoi-s around him, he has not used 
a spoonful of manure made by any animal, walking 
either on two legs or on four. He keeps a large 
number of horses and hogs, and several cows ; he 
uses not a shovelful of their manure, but selling 
that, he uses peat and swamp muck, mixed with* 
his spent barilla ashes. The proportions are, one 
part of spent ashes to three of peat, dug up in the 
fall, mixed in the spring. After shovelling two or 
three times, it is spread and ploughed in. The ef- 
fect is immediate, and so far, lasting. The effects 
of this spent ashes alone on sandy loam, are excel- 
lent; it makes the whole quite " salvy." 

273. The composition of spent ashes has already 
been alluded to ; a certain portion is carbonate of 
lime ; it is well known, that as such, it would pro- 
duce no better effects than so much chalk. A large 
part of silicate of soda exists in the spent ashes. 
This is decomposed by the carbonic acid of the air, 
the alkali then acts on geine, but this action is 
greatly assisted by the carbonate of lime. It is 
perhaps the most powerful agent in the decomposi- 
tion of the silicate of soda. Here then the action 
7 



172 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 

of carbonates on silicates tells. And it may be 
worth while to be reminded here, that this action 
was explained in detail, in order that it might be 
understood, how spent ashes could act so rapidly 
on swamp muck. 

274. Alkalies and peat, or swamp muck, are 
within the command of almost every farmer. Lime 
is not within reach, and besides, requires no small 
skill in its management. In the preparation of ma- 
nure, price is every thing. Let the cost be esti- 
mated per cord, of artificial manure, prepared in 
the proportions stated (270). Peat or muck, may 
be called worth fifty cents per cord, and the labor 
of digging, say one dollar, 

$1,50 

92 lbs. potash, 6 cts. $5,52^ 

or, 61 lbs. soda ash, or ! c ^^ ^■ o /-- 

white ash, 4 cts. 2,44 (^^verage of alkalies, 3,6d 

or, 24 bush, ashes, 12^ cts. 3,00 J 

3)10,96 $5,15 



3,65 
Were they really good hard wood ashes, about 
16 bushels would be sufficient, but an excess here 
is allowed, to compensate for variation in quality. 
This may appear a very high price, but it is to 
be remembered, that its value is to be compared 
with that of a cord of clear cow dung. What is 
the value of cow dung ? It appears from the barn 
account of the Merrimack Manufacturing Company, 
that for 9 1-2 years, ending October, 1838, a bushel 
of clear cow dung, costs 21 1-3 cents. During the 
same time dung of inferior quality was delivered 
at the Print-works, by the neighboring farmers at 
20 cents per bushel. Clear dung, is delivered at 
the Print-works in Dover at 12 1-2 cents per bushel, 



ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 173 

and at several of the Print-works in Rhode Island, 
at 16 cents per bushel, giving an average of 17*45 
cents per bushel, and as a cord contains, in round 
numbers, 100 bushels, its price is $17,45 

Deduct from this the price of an artificial cord, 5,15 



812,30 

It is hence evident that an artificial cord is only 
about one-third of the price of a natural cord, and 
if the last may be mixed with two parts of loam or 
swamp muck, so may the first, which will reduce 
the price of a cord of artificial manure, to $2,71. 
Now this is equal, according to all experience, cord 
for cord, to stable manure ; the value of that may 
be estimated at $5, so that an artificial cord costs 
only about one-half. The best plan for preparing 
the artificial manure, would be to dig the peat or 
swamp muck in the fall ; in the spring of the year 
let this be mixed in the proportion of 30 lbs. of pot- 
ash, or 20 lbs. of soda ash, or 8 bushels of common 
house ashes, to every cord of fresh dug peat, esti- 
mating this by the pit dug out, and allowing noth- 
ing in the spring for shrinking. If ashes are used, 
they may be mixed in at once with the muck, but 
if soda ash or potashes are used, they must be dis- 
solved in water and the pile evenly wet with the 
solution. The pile is then to be well shovelled 
over, and used as is other manure. But it has been 
found by experience, that the peat may be dug in 
the spring, immediately mixed with the alkali, and 
used forthwith. If spent ashes are used to prepare 
this muck, add one cord of spent ashes to three 
cords of peat or swamp muck. 

275. But there are still other forms of cheap 
alkali, which may be recommended, though it may 
appear inconsistent with what has been advanced 



174 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 

respecting lime, but in this case, the lime is con- 
verted into a perfectly soluble salt. The soda is 
eliminated caustic, acts on* the geine, renders it 
soluble. During the exposure to the vokuxies of 
carbonic acid, evolved from the peat, the caustic 
soda becomes carbonated. This carbonate of soda, 
immediately decomposes the soluble salt of lime, 
and an insoluble salt of lime with a soluble salt of 
soda, is the result. The effects of these various ac- 
tions, are, first, the geine is made soluble, ammonia 
evolved, which is converted into a nitrate, carbonate 
of lime produced, which acts* as that does in spent 
ashes, and a soluble salt of soda or common salt 
remains m the mass, producing still farther good 
effects, when its alkali is let loose by the action of 
growing plants. Here are rounds of changes taking 
place, which though the farmer may not readily 
understand, he may easily produce, with lime and 
common salt. It may be stated, in farther explan- 
ation of these changes, that common salt is a com- 
pound of soda and muriatic acid, or muriate of soda, 
using here the old language of chemistry, which is 
more intelligible to the farmer, though not philo- 
sophically correct. By mixing quicklime with com- 
mon salt, its soda is let loose, the acid combines 
with the lime, forming a soluble salt of lime, and 
as long as the soda remains caustic it has no effect 
on the muriate of lime, but as soon as the soda be- 
comes mild or carbonated, decomposition of the 
muriate of lime is produced, and the common salt 
regenerated. Commencing then with quicklime 
and salt, we pass on to a soluble salt of lime and 
caustic soda, and from that, to mild soda, and to 
carbonate of lime and the original common salt. 

276. If these various changes take place in the 
midst of peat, or geine, it is evident, that the caustic 



ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 175 

soda acts upon the geine, and also evolves ammonia 
from that substance ; secondly, that the muriate of 
lime in its finely soluble state insinuates itself among 
all the particles of the geine, that the soda also is 
equally diffused, and that when the soda becomes 
carbonated, it produces an almost impalpable car- 
bonate of lime throughout the whole mass, which, 
by its equal diffusion through the soil with the geine, 
acts upon the silicates, as has been heretofore ex- 
plained. In order to produce these effects, take, 

1 bushel of salt, 
1 cask of lime. 

Slack the lime with the brine, made by j^issolving 
the salt in water sufficient to make a ^tiff paste with 
the lime, which will be not quite sufficient to dis- 
solve all the salt. Mix all the materials then well 
together, and let them remain together in a heap 
for 10 days, and then be well mixed with three 
cords of peat ; shovel well over for about 6 weeks, 
and it will be fit for use. Here, then, are pro- 
duced 3 cords of manure, for about the cost of 
$2,10 per cord. 

Salt, 80,60 

Lime, 1,60 

Peat, 4,50 



3)86,30(82,10 

From experiments made in a small way, it is be- 
lieved that this will be found an effectual manure ; 
the author suggests it, in the hope that it may lead 
to cautious experiment. But there is still another 
form in which this artificial manure may bo pre- 
pared — that is by the addition of ammonia, the real 
Simon Pure of cow duns. Take 



176 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 

3 cords of peat, 
61 lbs. sal ammoniac, 
1-4 cask, or about 61 lbs. lime. 

Slack the lime, dissolve the sal ammoniac, and wet 
the peat well with the solution through every part. 
Then shovel over, mixing in the lime accurately. 
We have here then, 3 cords of manure, at a price 
as follows : 

3 cords peat, 84,50 

61 lbs. sal ammoniac, at Is., . . 10,17 
61 lbs. hme, 0,27 



8)$14,94(84,98 

It will be observed that three cords are used in 
these calculations, because the quantity of salts used 
is equivalent to the ammonia in a cord of dung, and 
that is supposed to be composted with 2 cords of 
loam, or meadow mud. Whether the estimates are 
correct, each one will determine by the value he 
may place on his peat and manure, and can apply 
his own estimate. When a cord of stable or barn- 
yard manure is usually estimated worth $4, the 
price of a cord of clear pure cow dung will not be 
thought high at $17. In fact, it probably, when 
mixed with the usual proportion of litter, straw, 
stalks and the usual loss by waste of its value, 
would become worth only about $6. But these 
questions do not affect the principle — that from al- 
kali and peat, as cheap a manure may be prepared, 
and as 2;ood, as from stable dung ; for let that be 
called " $5,00 

then adding 2 cords of peat, 3,00 



3)88,00 
$2,66 per cord. 



ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 177 

277. There are other sources of alkali, for con- 
verting peat into soluble manure. Of these the 
chief is animal matter. Here we have ammonia 
produced. It has been actually proved by experi- 
ment, that a dead horse can convert 20 tons of peat 
into a valuable manure, richer and more lasting 
than stable dung ; " a barrel of alewives is equal to 
a wagon load of peat." The next great and pro- 
lific source of ammonia is the urine. The urine of 
one cow for a winter, mixed up as it is daily col- 
lected, with peat, is sufficient to manure 1-2 an 
acre of land with 20 loads of manure of the best 
quality, while her solid evacuations, and litter, for 
the same period, afforded only 17 loads, whose 
value was onl}'' about one-half that of the former. 

278. It need only be added in confirmation of 
all that has been advanced, that those who have had 
the prudence to fill their yards and hog-pens with 
meadow mud, which has thus become saturated 
with ammonia, have in no wise lost their reward. 
If they have been satisfied with their practice, per- 
haps they will be no less firm in their belief of suc- 
cess, when science offers them a reason, for the 
faith that is in them. 

279. Having thus considered all the classes of 
manure, and shown-the possibility of enriching bar- 
ren fields, without the aid of animals, other subjects, 
intimately connected with this discussion, may be 
here introduced. 

These are, the application of manure in the form 
of rain, snow, and by overflowing streams, and the 
humble attempt to imitate these natural processes, 
by irrigation. The effects in these cases are alike. 
They are due to two distinct causes, first, to the air 
of the wate^', and secondly, to the salts and other 
materials, dissolved by, or suspended in the water. 



178 IRRIGATION. 

First, before it can be understood how irrigation 
acts, let it be considered, how pure water acts ; it 
is not said rain water, for that acts in a double way, 
both by its purity and impurity. The more impure, 
the better manure is water. The purer water is, 
the less is it fit for irrio-ation. 

280. Pure water acts only by its air. All water 
exposed to air, absorbs different proportions of its 
oxygen and nitrogen. This is a very slow process. 
It is found that most natural waters give out, by 
boiling, from every hundred cubic inches of water, 
3 1-2 cubic inches of air. This air contains 8 or 
9 per cent, more oxygen, than an equal bulk of 
common air. Water is generally filled or satura- 
ted with air ; it will take up no more by a month's 
exposure. If this water is boiled, and again expos- 
ed to air, it will absorb, in 24 hours, as follows ; — 
Let there be taken any number of measures of air, 
which are composed of 20 of oxygen and 80 of ni- 
trogen. If 100 measures are absorbed by water, 
it is in this proportion : 

Of Nitrogen, 46*43 

Of Oxygen, 53-57 

so that oxygen is three times more absorbable than 
nitrogen. 

281. If now, there is expelled by boiling, the air 
from pond or river water, it is found to contain. 

Nitrogen, 45-29 

Oxygen, 18.63 

so that two-thirds of the oxygen have disappeared ; 
this is the only fact which concerns the farmer. 
The oxygen has been absorbed by natural waters 
and two-thirds retained. What has become of it? 
It has gone, it is not said all of it, but in irrigation 
a large portion to convert insoluble into soluble 



IRRIGATION. 179 

geine. Irrigation is chiefly employed on grass- 
lands. The green sward here may not be broken 
up — what if it was ? What if by ploughing, it 
was exposed to the action of the air ? Remember 
the properties of geine. Air converts the insoluble 
to soluble, by forming carbonic acid, that is, the air 
combines with the carbon of the geine, and forms 
that gas. Give the geine this oxygen, condensed 
in water : wet it with this concentrated oxygen, 
crowd it into geine, as would be done by overflow- 
ing a meadow with water. It penetrates every 
crack and cranny, and every mole's-eye-hole ; it 
expels the carbonic acid imprisoned under the sod. 
It is doing the same work upon the untouched green 
sward, which would be efl^ected by ploughing and 
tillage. The long and the short of the whole action 
of irrigation with pure limpid water is, that its ab- 
sorbed oxygen converts insoluble to soluble geine. 
Is this explanation which science offers, confirmed 
by practice ? The appeal is made to all who have 
attended either to the theory or practice of irriga- 
tion, to bear witness to its truth. Is it not admitted 
that the running waters are alone fit for this pur- 
pose ? That after remaining a few days they are 
abated, and a new flood must cover the land? Ig 
not this necessity of renewing at short periods, the 
covering of water which shows no deposit, a proof 
that it has given up some invisible agent to fertilize 
the earth ? This invisible agent is oxygen. Is it 
not evident from the extreme slowness with which 
air is absorbed by water, that if it were not for the 
running water, which every few days replaces that 
which has acted, that the practice of irrigation with 
pure water could be never successful ? 

282. This is the principle — a principle which, 
having been wholly overlooked, has led to a waste 



180 IRRIGATION. 

of time and money, and has given to irrigation, in 
many minds, the odour, if not of a bad, at least, of 
a useless practice. Where, guided by this light of 
science, grass lands can be irrigated, let it be done. 
If the experience of the most enlightened agricultu- 
rists in Europe is not all deception, by simple 
irrigation with running water, the farmer may cut 
two tons of hay where he toils and sweats to rake 
off one. 

183. But by far the most fertile source of increas- 
ed crops by irrigation, is found in the impurity of 
water ; the salts and suspended matter, the slime 
and genial mud of freshets. Perhaps the effect due 
to this cause, cannot be better illustrated, than by a 
statement of those substances, and their amount, 
which fill the waters of the Merrimack ; a flood of 
blessings ! which rolls by those engaged in the din 
and hot haste of manufactures, as unheeded as was 
the earthquake which thundered and trembled, and 
rolled away under the feet of the fierce soldiery 
in an ancient battle. In the year 1838, during 
twenty-three days of freshets, from May till No- 
vember, no less than 71,874,063 lbs. of geine and 
salts rolled by the city of Lowell, borne seaward. 
.During the five days of the great freshet, from Jan- 
uary 28th to February 1st, 1839, no less than 35,- 
970,897 lbs. of the same matter rolled by at from 
the rate of 112,128 lbs. to 20,405,397 lbs. per day ; 
each cubic foot of water bearing onwards, fiom 
1 1-2 to 30 1-2 grains. This is only the suspended 
matter. That which is chemically dissolved by the 
waters, the fine filmy deposit, which occurs in a 
few days after the coarser and grosser matters sub- 
side — and the matter ordinarily suspended in the 
water of the river added to the above for the year 
1838, give a grand total of 839,181 tons of salts 



IRRIGATION. 181 

and geine, which were rolled down in the water of 
the Merrimack river, 

284. What is this matter ? Is it of any agri- 
cultural value ? The answer to the first question 
will answer both. The dissolved salts are sulphate 
and geate of lime, and the fine deposit occurring 
after the water has settled, is composed of one- 
half geine, and the remainder of salts of lime and 
silicates. The great agricultural value is found in 
the clayey deposit, which occurs in the first few 
days. The coarser part, that which collects about 
the foot of rocks, and falls, and eddies is composed, 
as follows : 

Geine, 3.92 

Silex, ■ 72-70 

Oxide of iron, 9*15 

Alumina, 8-30 

Lime, 051 

Magnesia, 010 

But considering the elements as we have usually 
treated them, as silicates, salts and geine, the com- 
position. of the several deposits is shown in the fol- 
lowing table : 

Geine. 

, '^ N Stilphate Phos. of ^-j. . 

Soluble Insol. of lime. lime. '^"*<^"^«^- 

The coarse de- ) 2-06 1-86 0-74 0.90 94-44 
posit above, ) 

Freshet, 1839, 540 6-50 2-34 120 84-66 

Freshet^ Jdy ) g.g^ ^.^^ ^.^q q.^q ^^.^0 

285. If the doctrine of the action of silicates, 
salts and geine, upon each other when aided by 
growing plants, is considered, it cannot fail to be 
perceived, that the fertility of soils, periodically 
overflowed by turbid waters, is owing to the ele- 



182 IRRIGATION. 

merits, salts and geine which it contains, and to the 
exquisitely finely divided state of the silicates which 
form the bulk of the deposit. The carbonic acid of 
the air, acts on each atom of silicate, while owing 
to the geine, having been, as it were, irrigated, the 
oxygen of the air and water, must put that into a 
state to evolve carbonic acid. Hence, the silicates 
are at once decomposed, and their alkali liberated. 
How beautiful ! It seems like a special interposi- 
tion of that beneficent Power, whose blessings, while 
they fill us with wondering admiration, at the in- 
finite skill, which directs every change in the ma- 
terial universe, should teach us also, that these 
changes are held up to us, not only to admire, but 
in some humble decree to imitate. • Whenever man 
— " the faithful servant and interpreter of nature," 
has thus learned the lessons propounded by an In- 
finite Mind, he finds, when he humbly imitates na- 
ture's laws, she is a kind and indulgent parent. 
She opens her hand liberally, and gives fertility by 
irrigation, and rivei's and streams like holy water, 
sprinkled by a reverend father, fructify all they 
bedew. With hearts thus attuned, by the observa- 
tion of the laws of nature, they respond to the gentle 
vibrations, caused by the descent of genial and fer- 
tilizing showers. 

286. Rain is only natural irrigation ; the water 
is found like that of rivers, rich in oxygen, and or- 
ganic matter. The fertilizing power of rain, is 
referred to the same causes, which lead to irriga- 
tion, to the salts and geine, which rain water con- 
tains. Several chemists have proved the existence 
of saline matters and organic substances in the air. 
The falling rain carries down with it salts of am- 
monia, of soda, of lime, and organic matter. — 
These all may be supposed floating in the air. The 



IRRIGATION. 183 

dry soils, give to the winds an impalpable dust, its 
silicates and geine. When hailstones which have 
been formed in the regions of perpetual frost, exhibit 
almost the same substances, which are contained in 
rain water, the height at which these matters float, 
would almost compel the supposition that they ex- 
ist in a gaseous state. From the examination of 
hailstones, by Girardin, a French chemist, it ap- 
pears, that no sensible trace of ammonia was de- 
tected during the evaporation of their water, but 
there was found a notable quantity of lime and sul- 
phuric acid ; and above all, a large proportion of 
an organic substance containing nitrogen. Melted 
hailstones have the appearance of water, contain- 
ing a drop or two of milk ; by standing, the water 
grows clear, and the flocky matter which settles, 
burns with the smell of animal matter, and evolves 
ammonia. 

It is a question whether, even at the Giessen 
Laboratory this was not the source of the ammonia, 
there discovered in rain water. It is taken for grant- 
ed, that the ammonia in rain water existed as a vol- 
atile carbonate, because it was found to pass over 
in distillation. So did a volatile product, which 
always discoloured the crystals of sal ammoniac, pro- 
cured by adding muriatic acid to the distilled wa- 
ter. This discolouring matter, was noticed a cen- 
tury ago by Margraf. Later chemists have also 
detected ammoniacal salts in rain water, but no 
volatile carbonate of that base. It is well known 
that muriate of soda arises in evaporation, so does 
chromate of potash, and several other salts. If in 
distilling rain water, the ammonia did not pass over 
in the volatile organic discolouring product, it may 
have gone over as muriate of ammonia. It is not 
questioned that ammoniacal salts exist in rain and 



184 IRRIGATION. 

snow water. The fact that it there exists as car- 
bonate, seems to be assumed, and is incompatible 
with the sahs which have been heretofore obtained, 
from rain, snow and hail. This subject has of late 
excited much attention, and as the existence of salts 
in snow, is intimately connected with the old saying, 
that " snow is the poor man's manure," it may be 
worth while to examine the foundation of this prov- 
erb. Like all others of this class, it will be found 
to rest on observation, and is supported by experi- 
ment. In 1751, Margraf, in the neighborhood of 
Berlin, after it had snowed several hours, collected 
in glass vessels, as much falling snow as afforded 
3600 ounces of water. This carefully evaporated, 
afforded 60 grains of calcareous matter, with some 
grains of muriatic acid, and traces of nitrous vapor. 
An equal quantity of rain water, afforded 100 grains 
calcareous matter, with some muriatic acid ; and 
in both cases the matter was discolored by an oily 
substance. A similar result was obtained long ago 
in Ireland, by Dr Rutty, who found in a gallon of 
snow water, 4 grains, and in one gallon of rain wa- 
ter, 6 grains of calcareous matter. This is about 
the proportion found by Margraf, and would give 
for each inch of snow water about 10 lbs. of salts 
per acre. From the existence of free acids in this 
case, it is evident that no carbonate of ammonia 
could have there existed. There are some experi- 
ments performed by our countryman. Dr. Williams, 
formerly Hollis Professor of JMathematics and Nat- 
ural Philosophy in Harvard College, and detailed in 
the first volume of his histor}^ of Vermont, where 
the experiments were performed. In 1791, 6 gal- 
lons of fresh falling snow water, afforded by evapo- 
ration, 11 grains calcareous matter, 2 grains of sa- 
line matter, 5 grains of a dark brown oily matter. 



IRRIGATION. 185 

In January, 1792, 6 gallons of snow water, from 
snow lying three inches deep on the grass, on an 
area of 16 square feet, where it had lain 59 daj^s, 
covered with a depth of 27 inches of snow, afforded 
the same salts as above, and 105 grains of this oily 
matter. This is the most remarkable fact, and mav 
afford some weight to the suggestion before made, 
that organic matter exists gaseous in the air. It 
must have been drawn up by capillary attraction, or 
evolved from the surface of the earth. It is there 
condensed by the snow, and returned to the earth, 
impregnated with its salts of lime and ammonia. — 
The snow is " the poor man's manure." It not on- 
ly adds salts and geine, but prevents the escape of 
the last. But is it possible that it should escape in 
the cold ? Doubtless it does when the ground is 
not frozen. The snow by its warm mantle actually 
prevents the earth growing colder, and as has been 
ingeniously suggested, keeps up an imperfect vege- 
tation. The snow thaws frozen ground. In 1791, 
Professor Williams found that the ground which had 
been frozen 6 inches in depth, before the snow fell, 
not only had this frost extracted in a few weeks by 
snow, 'but that the ground, 6 inches below the sur- 
face, had a temperature of 39 degrees. This slight 
elevation of temperature was enough to allow the 
gaseous exhalation of organic matter, which was 
found to exceed thai of fresh fallen snow, by 20 
times. This quantity in snow 3 inches deep, would 
give per acre 40 lbs., and to this are to be added 5 
lbs. of salts. If this geine is not a natural addition 
in weight, it has undergone a transformation and 
become soluble. Besides, eveiy inch of fresh fal- 
len snow actually adds a little of this same matter ; 
it will not be extravagant to estimate the total addi- 
tion of geine at 50 lbs. per acre for the winter. — 



186 PARING AND BURNING. 

This added to the warming effects of snow, shows 
that it may have a genial and enriching power on 
vegetation, independent of its ammonia. The old 
, notion of the existence of nitre in snow is not sup- 
ported by evidence ; but in whatever view we con- 
sider the salts of lime, in snow and rain water, it is 
difficult to believe that carbonate of ammonia exists 
in atmospheric air. 

287. There are still other sources of manure, or 
the elements of fertility, which the farmer can com- 
mand. Among these, a#e paring and burning, and 
the ploughing in of green, and dry crops. 

It is not intended to go into the detail of these 
operations. All experience proves their great fer- 
tilizing power. Their whole action, mysterious as 
a part of it may appear, depends for its success up- 
on the formation of geine, salts, and silicates. And 
first, — burning, in which is to be considered the 
effects of simply burning the earthy parts of soils. 
In the description of silicates. Chap. II, the frequent 
occurrence of pyrites, or sulphuret of iron, was de- 
scribed, and this is especially the case in all clays. 
The effect of burning is, to disengage sulphurous 
acid, and the red and seared appearance of the fo- 
liage in the neighborhood of a brick kiln, which 
may be often observed, is due to the disengagement 
of acid gases, during the process of burning the 
bricks. This acid gas being liberated, in the ope- 
ration of burning soils, hastens the formation of sul- 
phates and salts. It divides the silicates, and thus 
reduces them to a state in which the carbonic acid 
of the air more easily decomposes them. If we go 
one step further, and burn the vegetable matter of 
the soil, a portion of geine is lost, and ashes are 
formed, whose operation has been already consider- 
ed, Chap. III. They dissolve any geine in soil. 



GREEN AND DRY CROPS. 187 

hence the practice of burning the parings of a peat 
meadow, whose ashes, bring the balance into culti- 
vation. The whole practice of burning vegetable 
soil for its ashes, is wasteful. The original mode of 
paring and burning, and which forty years ago was 
so common in Europe, is still followed in many pla- 
ces in England, where the paring, from the opera- 
tion, is called push ploughing. It has been more 
often given up, from the excessive crops it has pro- 
duced, exhausting the soil, than any inherent sin in 
the practice itself. Instead of paring and burning, 
it should rather be called paring and roasting. The 
process should never go beyond a good scorching. 
The effects of scorching insoluble geine, and inert 
vegetable fibre, may be illustrated by reference to 
the effects of roasting coffee or rye. A tough green 
berry, or dry seed, which is quite insoluble, is made 
by this process very soluble. Toasting bread has a 
like effect, and so has baking, on the dough. — 
Though in roasting coffee, a large portion of char- 
coal seems to be made, yet in the grounds of cof- 
fee, vegetable fibre is in that state, in which air and 
moisture act, as they do on the geine of soils, con- 
verting the insoluble into soluble. If ever decided 
good effects have been witnessed from the applica- 
tion of charcoal, independent of rain water, they 
are due to the cause here pointed out. 

188. Turning in green crops is returning only 
to the soil, the salts, silicates and geine, which the 
plant has drawn out of it, together with all the or- 
ganic matter, the plant itself has elaborated, from 
oxygen and hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, from 
whatever source derived. It has decomposed, dur- 
ing the short period of its grovvth, as has been al- 
ready pointed out, more silicates and salts, than the 
air only, could effect during the same period, which 



188 GREEN AND DRY CROPS. 

being turned in, restore to the soil from which they 
grew, salts and silicates in a new form, whose ac- 
tion on vegetation is like that of alkalies. But, 
powerful as are the effects of green crops, plough- 
ed in, it is the experience of some practical men, 
that one crop allowed to perfect itself and then die 
where it grew, and then turned in dr}^, is superior 
to three turned in green. The whole result is ex- 
plained by the fact, that dry plants give more geine 
than green. Green plants ferment, — dry plants 
decay. A large portion escapes in fermentation as 
gas and more volatile products are formed, than 
during decay. The one is a quick consuming fire, 
the other a slow mouldering ember, giving off dur- 
ing all its progress, gases, which feed plants, and 
decompose the silicates of soil. 

289. The power of fertility which exists in the 
silicates of soil is unlimited. An improved agricul- 
ture must depend upon the skill with which this 
power is brought into action. It can be done only 
by the conjunction of salts, geine and plants. Bar- 
ren sands are worthless, a peat bog is little better ; 
but a practical illustration of the principles, which 
have been maintained, is afforded by every sandy 
knoll, made fertile by spreading swamp muck upon 
it. This is giving geine to silicates. The very 
act of exposure of this swamp muck, has caused an 
evolution of carbonic acid gas ; that decomposes the 
silicates of potash in the sand ; that potash converts 
the insoluble into soluble manure, and lo ! a crop. 
That growing crop, adds its power to the geine. If 
all the long series of experiments under Von Voght, 
in Germany, are to be believed, confirmed as they 
are by repeated trials by our own agriculturists, 
it is not be doubted, that every inch of every sand 
knoll, on every farm, may be changed into a soil 



DECOMPOSITION OF SOIL. 189 

in 13 years, of half that number of inches of good 
mould, 

290. That the cause of fertility, is derived from 
the decomposing power of the geine and plants, is 
evident from the fact, that mere atmospheric expo- 
sure of rocks, enriches all soil lying near and 
around them. It has been thought among the inex- 
plicable mysteries, that the soil under an old stone- 
wall is richer than that a little distance from it. In- 
dependent of its roller action, which has compress- 
ed the soil and prevented the aerial escape of its 
geine, consider that the potash washed out of the 
wall has done this, and the mystery disappears. 
The agents to hasten this natural production of al- 
kali, are salts and geine. The abundance of these 
has already been pointed out in peat manure. Next 
to this, dry crops ploughed in ; no matter how scanty, 
their volume constantly will increase, and can sup- 
ply the place of swamp muck. Of all soils to be 
cultivated, or to be restored, none are preferable to 
the sandy light soils. By their porousness, free 
access is given to the powerful effects of air. They 
are naturally in that state, to which trenching, 
draining, and subsoil ploughing are reducing the 
stiffer lands of England. Manure may as well be 
thrown into water, as on land underlaid by water. 
Drain this, and no matter if the upper soil be almost 
quicksand, manure will convert it into fertile arable 
land. The thin covering of mould, scarcely an 
inch in thickness, the product of a century may be 
imitated by studying the laws of its formation. 
This is the work of " Nature's 'prentice hand ;" man 
has long been her journeyman, and now guided by 
science, the farmer becomes the master workman, 
and may produce in one year, quite as much as the 
apprentice made in seven. 



190 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 

291. In all attempts at improving soil by manure, 
two objects are intended, which form the golden 
rule of applying salts and geine ; to make " heavy 
land lighter, light land heavier, hot land colder, and 
cold land hotter." Are there th^n, notwithstanding 
all that has been offered and said, differences in 
soil ? Have not, it may be asked, all the preceding 
pages been based on the fact, that there is but one 
soil ? True it has been so said, it is said so now. 
Chemically, the inorganic elements of all soil are 
alike. The silicates and salts are nearly the same 
in all ; the organic portion, the geine varies, and 
that to a greater degree, than any other ingredient 
While the silicates compose with great uniformity 
from 80 to 90 per cent, and the salts of lime, sul 
phate, and phosphate, from 1-2 to 3-4 per cent, 
the geine varies from 1 to 20 per cent. The sili 
cates may be finer or coarser, more sandy or more 
clayey. All these circumstances, affect, not the 
chemical, but the physical properties of soil. The 
physical properties then, are the foundation of the 
great diversity which soil exhibits. The subject of 
soil, will be very imperfectly treated, if a few pa- 
ges are not devoted to this important subject. The 
physical characters of soil, are embraced under the 



PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 191 

terms, cold, hot, wet, and dry land. These char- 
acters are dependent on four circumstances. 

292. First, the absolute weight of a given 
bulk of soil, 
Secondly, its colour, 
Thirdly, its consistency, 
Fourthly, its power of retaining water. 
In other words, the physical characters of soil may 
be considered under — 

First, its relation to heat. 
Secondly, its relation to moisture and gas, 
Thirdly, its consistency. 
Fourthly, its electrical relation. 
The relation to consistency makes soil light, or 
heavy ; the relation to heat and moisture, makes 
soil hot or cold, dry or wet. The great natural va- 
rieties of soil are, sand, clay, and loam ; first, the 
great distinction in the scale of soil, is sand and 
clay : all intermediate varieties proceed from mix- 
tures of these, with each other. Now the sand 
may be siliceous, or calcareous — that is, silicates, 
the distinguishing character of soil in this country, 
or mixed with a salt of lime, the feature of much 
European soil. By clay is meant common blue 
clay, or sub-silicate of alumina, consisting of alu- 
mina, 36 ; silica, 68 ; oxide of iron, and salts of 
lime, and alkalies, 6. 

Sandy clay is — clay and sand, equal parts. 
Loamy clay is — 3-4 clay, and 1-4 sand. 
Peaty earth is — geine. 
Garden mould is — 8 per cent, geine. 
Arable land is — 3 per cent, geine. 
Taking these several varieties, it is found, that 
sand is always the heaviest part of soil, whether 
dry or wet ; clay is among the lightest part ; geine 
has the least absolute weight, so that while a cubic 



192 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 

of sand weighs, in its common damp state, 141 lbs., 
clay weighs 115 lbs., and geine 81 lbs.; hence 
garden mould and arable soil weigh from 102 to 
119 lbs. The more geine, compound soil con- 
tains, the lighter it is. 

293. Among the most important physical char- 
acters of soil, is the power of retaining heat ; this 
will be found to be nearly in proportion to its abso- 
lute weight. The weight of soil, determines with 
tolerable accuracy, its power of retaining heat. 
The greater the mass in a given bulk, the greater is 
this power. Hence sands retain heat longest, three 
times longer than geine, and half as long again as 
clay. Hence, the dryness and heat of sandy plains. 
Sand, clay, and peat, are to each other as 1,2, and 
3 in their power of retaining heat. But while the 
capacity of soil to retain heat, depends on the abso- 
lute weight, the power to be warmed, another very 
important physical character depends on four prin- 
cipal circumstances : first, the colour ; second, the 
dampness ; third, the materials ; fourth, the angle 
at which the sun's rays fall. First colour, the 
blacker the colour, the easier warmed. White sand 
and gray, differ almost 50 per cent., in the degree 
of heat acquired in a given time. As peat and the 
varieties of geine, are almost all of a black, or dark 
brown colour, it is seen how easily they may be- 
come warm soils, when diy ; for secondly, damp- 
ness modifies the influence of colour, so that a dry, 
light colored soil will become hotter, sooner than a 
dark wet one. As long as evaporation goes on, a 
difference of 10 or 12 degrees will be found be- 
tween a dry and a wet soil of the same colour. 
Thirdly, the different materials of which soils are 
composed, exert but very little influence on their 
power of being heated by the sun's rays. Indeed, 



PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 193 

if sand, peat, clay, garden mould, all equally dry, 
are sprinkled with chalk, making their surfaces all 
of a color, and then exposed to the sun's rays, the 
differences of their temperature, will be found in- 
considerable. Colour and dryness then, exert a 
most powerful influence on the capacity of soil to 
be warmed. ~ 

Fourthly, the last circumstance to be noticed, is 
the different angle at which the sun's rays fall. The 
more perpendicular, the greater the heat. The ef- 
fect is less in proportion, as these rays by falling 
more slanting, spread their light out over a greater 
surface. But this point, which seems external to 
soil, need not be enlarged on. Now, the great fact 
to be observed, in this relation, of soil to heat is, 
thkt geine exerts the most marked influence. If 
soil heats quickly, it is because it has a large pro- 
portion of geine. Does it cool quickly ? it is the 
geine which gives up heat quickly, referring here 
to the soil in a dry state, the modification produced 
by dampness, having been already considered. 

294. The relation of soil to moisture and gas, is 
not less important than that of heat. All soil, except 
pure siliceous sands, absorb moisture, but in differ- 
ent degrees. Geine possesses the greatest power 
of absorption, and no variety of geine equals in its 
absorptive power, that from animal manure. The 
others rank in the following order, garden mould, 
clay, loam, sandy cla}'', arable soil. They all sat- 
urate themselves with moisture by a few days' ex- 
posure. It is a very interesting question, does soil 
give up this absorbed water speedily and equally ? 
Is its power of retaining water equal ? As a general 
fact, it may be stated, that the soil which absorbs 
fastest and most, evaporates slowest and least. 
Geine evaporates least in a given time. The pow- 



194 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 

er of evaporation, is modified by the consistence of 
soil ; by a different degree of looseness or compact- 
ness of soil. Garden mould, for instance, dries 
faster than clay. As it has been already shown, 
that the power of being warmed is much modified 
by moisture, so the power of a soil to retain water 
makes the distinction of a hot or cold, wet or dry 
soil. In all the relations to moisture, as to heat, 
geine exercises the greatest influence. 

295. Connected with this power of absorption 
of moisture, is the very important relation of soil to 
gas. All soil absorbs oxygen gas, when damp, nev- 
er when dry. Of the ingredients of soil, geine 
forms the only exception to this rule. That absorbs 
oxygen, whether it be wet or dry; Geine has this 
power in the highest degree, clay next ; frozen 
earths not at all. A moderate temperature increa- 
ses the absorption. 

When earths absorb oxygen, the)'' give it up un- 
changed. They do not combine with it. They 
merely induce on the absorbed moisture, power to 
imbibe oxygen. But when geine absorbs oxygen, 
one portion of that combines with its carbon, pro- 
ducing carbonic acid, which decomposes silicates, 
and a second portion of oxygen combines with the 
hydrogen of the geine, and produces water. Hence, 
in a dry season well manured soils or those abound- 
ing in geine, suffer very little. The power of geine 
to produce water, is a circumstance of soil almost 
wholly overlooked. It is one, whose high value 
will appear by a comparison with the quantity of 
water, produced by a fresh ploughed, upturned 
sward, with that from the same soil undisturbed. 
The evaporation from an acre of fresh ploughed 
land is equal to 950 lbs. per hour ; this is the great- 
est for the first and second days, ceases about the 



PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 195 

fifth day, and again begins by hoeing, while at the 
same time the unbroken sod affords no trace of 
moisture. This evaporation is equal to that which 
follows after copious rains. These are highly prac- 
tical facts, and teach the necessity of frequent stir- 
ring of soiLin a dry time. Where manure or geine 
is lying in the soil, the evaporation is from an acre, 
equal, to 5000 lbs. per hour. At 2000 lbs. of wa- 
ter per hour, the evaporation would amount in 92 
days to 2,208,000 lbs. which is nearly equal to the 
amount of rain which would fall in the same time 
in this climate. But the evaporation from wood- 
land actually exceeds the amount of rain which 
falls. The evaporation from an acre of woodland 
was determined by Professor Williams, (see his 
Hist, of Vermont, vol. 1,) as follows : two leaves 
and a bud of a branch of a growing maple were 
sealed in a bottle, while yet attached to the tree. 
The expired water, collected, and weighed, was 
found to amount in six hours to 16 grains. The 
tree was 8 1-2 in. in diameter, and 30 feet high. 
It was felled, and the leaves carefully counted, 
were in number, 21,192. Supposing these all to 
have evaporated like those in the bottle, they would 
have expired, in twelve hours, 339,072 grains of 
water. A moderate estimate, and below the usual 
quantity of wood per acre of similar land, gave 
four such trees to a rod, or 640 per acre. Estima- 
ting 7000 grains to a pint, 3,875 gallons of water, 
or 31,000 lbs. were evaporated from an acre of 
woodland in 12 hours. At Rutland, in Vermont, 
where this experiment was made, in 1789, the 
Professor notes, that on the 26lh of May, the ma- 
ple leaves were 1-6 of their full size, and on the 
15th of September following, these leaves began to 
turn white. Throwing out the 15 days in Septem- 



196 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 

ber and the 4 in May, the leaf may be considered 
as fully developed for three months. During these 
92 days, the evaporation would have amounted, at 
12 hours per day, to 2,852,000 lbs. The rain at 
the place during this period, was 8,333 inches or 
43 4-10 of a pound to every square foot of surface, 
equal per acre of 43,560 feet, to 1,890,504 lbs. 
The amount of evaporation during the time in which 
the tree was in full leaf exceeds that of the actual 
fall of rain, by nearly 1,000,000 of lbs. This ex- 
cess arises from the decomposition of geine in the 
soil, and consequent formation of water, by the ac- 
tion of the living plant. If we allow the process to 
go on, during 15 hours per day, then in 92 days, 
as above, 3,565,000 lbs. of water would be evapo- 
rated. One may easily understand how exhausting 
a process must be vegetation, where every year, all 
above ground is cut and carried away. Not only 
the geine, whose carbon and water, have become 
parts of the plant is thus withdrawn, but a still lar- 
ger portion, disappears as water and carbonic acid. 
In forests, the annual fall of leaves and wood, in 
fields, the ungathered crop, may add more than the 
amount thus withdrawn from soil. That plants do 
form from carbonic acid and water, a great amount 
of vegetable matter, is by all admitted. This amount 
in dry or green crops turned in, increases the geine 
of soil. 

There is yet another view of the effect of the 
conversion of geine into water. Allowing, as has 
been asserted, that all land, forest or cultivated, 
produces annually about the same amount of car- 
bon, then the amount of water, transpired above 
from woodland in 15 hours, is nearly equal to dis- 
solving one-half of the geine, to produce that amount 
leaving the balance to be derived from air. An 



PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 197 

acre of woodland produces, it is said, annually, about 
1783 English pounds of carbon. If water dissolves 
only JL part of its weight of humus or geine, then 

3,565,000 dissolve 1426 lbs., which, at 58 per cent 

carbon are equal to 827 lbs. 

Leaving to be derived from air, . . . 956 lbs. 



1783 lbs. 

This is taking geine in its most insoluble state. 
The great increase of solubility when combined 
with alkali would render the annual amount of wa- 
ter transpired, equal to dissolving, as geine, all the 
carbon which has been added to the plant. 

The advantage of a light porous open soil is 
now evident ; it lets in air, it lets off steam. This 
steam charged with carbonic acid, acts on silicates, 
eliminates alkalies, waters and feeds plants. Salts, 
geine, and barren pine plains, are the elements of 
a western prairie. Nature never bestowed upon 
man, soil of greater capability of being made last- 
ingly fertile, than the sandy light soil of New Eng- 
land. 

296. It is evident that the terms of heavy and 
light, given by the farmer to soil, do not refer to 
their absolute weight (293). These distinctions 
depend on firmness or consistency of soil. This 
produces a very marked difference in the fertility 
and tillage of land. The terms light and heavy, 
mean lighter or heavier to work. It is well known 
clay lands are heavy to work, sandy soil is the 
lightest and easiest, next to this is a soil containing 
a small portion of geine. All light soil becomes 
heavy when wet, but it is a well ascertained fact, 
that heavy soil always becomes lighter by frost. 
Hence the reason of breaking up with a plough be- 



198 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 

fore winter. Moist earth then becomes frozen, and 
its particles being driven asunder by frost, it be- 
comes lighter — in truth it has been found, that the 
consistency of clay, is diminished nearly one-half 
by frost, and loamy clay, one-half to two-thirds. 
It is essential to this change from heavy to light 
land, that the soil be wet enough to freeze. It is 
well known, that if by frost, the nature of the soil 
is thus changed, that if it is ploughed while wet af- 
ter freezing, the labor of the fall ploughing is lost. 
A lasting injury is done by ploughing land too wet. 

297. In reference to the electrical relations of 
soil, the dry sands are non-conductors, the clays 
weak imperfect conductors, they are in the nega- 
tive state. Geine is always positive towards the 
elements of soil. 

298. In whatever view we regard geine, it is the 
basis on which rests the whole art of agriculture. 
It is this which causes the great difference of soil. 
It is a difference of physical characters. The 
chemical characters are uniform. If then, geine is 
the soul of fertility, if it makes soil, hot, cold, wet, 
dry, heavy or light, the proportion in which it exists 
in soil, becomes an agricultural problem of the 
highest value. This would lead to chemical anal- 
ysis. The lectures in which the principles set forth 
in this book, were explained, terminated with a 
practical exhibition of the process of analysis of 
soil. Having already greatly exceeded the limits 
to which it was intended to confine these pages, the 
subject of analysis, and several other topics may be 
resumed at some other time. 



APPENDIX. 



No. 1. — Dr. Nichols's Statements., from the Essex 
County Agricultural transactions., 1839 — 40. 

To the Committee to irhom loas referred the communication of 
Andrew Aichols, on the subject of Compont Manures, 4*c. 

Gentlemen : — Persuaded of the importance of the dis- 
coveries made by Dr. Samuel L. Dana, of Lowell, and 
given to the world through the medium of the reports of 
Professor Hitchcock and Rev. H. Colman, to the Legisla- 
ture of Massachusetts, concerning tlie food of vegetables, 
geine, and the abundance of it in peat mud, in an insolu- 
ble state to be sure, and in that state not readily absorbed 
and digested by the roots of cultivated vegetables, but 
rendered soluble and very easily digestible by such plants 
by potash, wood ashes, or other alkalies, among which is 
ammonia, one of the products of fermenting animal ma- 
nures, I resolved last year to subject his theories to the 
test of experiment the present season. Accordingly I di- 
rected a quantity of black peat mud, procured by ditching 
for the purpose of draining and reclaiming an alder swamp, 
a part of which I had some years since brought into a 
state highly productive of the cultivated grasses, to be 
thrown in heaps. During the winter I also had collected 
in Salem, 282 bushels of unleached wood ashes, at the 
cost of 121-2 cents per bushel. These were sent up to my 
farm, a part to spread on my black soil grass lands, and a 
part to be mixed with mud for my tillage land. Two hun- 
dred bushels of these were spread on about six acres of 
such grass land, while it was covered with ice and frozen 
hard enough to be carted over without cutting it into ruts. 
These lands pi-oduced from one to two tons of good mer- 
chantable hay to the acre, nearly double the crop produ- 
ced by the same lands last year. And one fact induces 



200 APPENDIX. 

me to think, that being spread on the ice, as above men- 
tioned, a portion of these aslies was washed away by the 
spring freshet. The fact from which I infer this, is, that 
a run below, over which the water coming from the mea- 
dow on which the largest part of these ashes were spread 
flows, produced more than double the quantity of hay, 
and that of a very superior quality to what had been ever 
known to grow on the same land before. 

Seventy bushels of these ashes, together with a quanti- 
ty not exceeding thirty bushels of mixed coal and wood 
ashes made by my kitchen and parlor fires, were mixed 
with my barn manure, derived from one horse kept in sta- 
ble during the winter months, one cow kept through the 
winter, and one pair of oxen employed almost daily on the 
road and in the woods, but fed in the barn one hundred 
days. This manure was never measxired, but knowing 
how it was made, by the droppings and litter or bedding 
of these cattle, farmers can estimate the quantity with a 
good degree of correctness. These ashes and this manure 
were mixed with a sufficient quantity of the mud above 
mentioned by forking it over tiiree times, to manure three 
acres of corn and potatoes, in hills four feet by about three 
feet apart, giving a good shovelfull to the hill. More than 
two-tliirdsof this was grass land, which produced last year 
aboufcjhalf a ton of h3.y to the acre, broken up by the plough 
in April. The remainder was cropped last year without 
being well manured, with corn and potatoes. Gentlemen, 
you have seen the crop growing and matured, and I leave 
it to you to say whether or not the crop on this land would 
have been better had it been dressed with an equal quan- 
tity of pure, well rotted barn manure. For my own part, 
I believe it would not, but that this experiment proves 
that peat mud thus managed, is equal if not superior to 
the same quantity of any other substance in common use 
as a manure among us ; which, if it be a fact, is a fact of 
immense value to the farmers of New England. By the 
knowledge and use of it, our comparatively barren soils 
may be made to equal or excel in productiveness the vir- 
gin prairies of the West. There were many hills in which 
the corn first planted was destroyed by worms. A part of 
these were supplied with the small Canada corn, a part 
with beans. The whole was several times cut down by 
frost. The produce was three hundred bushels of ears of 
sound corn, two tons of pumpkins and squashes, and some 



APPENDIX. 201 

potatoes and beans. Dr. Dana, in bis letter to Mr. Col- 
man, dated Lowell, March 6, 1839, suggests the trial of a 
solution of geine as a manure. His directions for prepar- 
ing it are as follows : " Boil one hundred pounds of dry 
pulverized peat with two and a half pounds of white ash, 
(an article imported from England,) containing 36 to 55 
per cent, of pure soda, or its equivalent in pearlash or 
potash, in a potash kettle, with 130 gallons of water ; boil 
for a few hours, let it settle, and dip off the clear liquid 
for use. Add the same quantity of alkali and water, boil 
and dip off as before. The dark colored brown solution 
contains about half an ounce per gallon of vegetable mat- 
ter. It is to be applied by watering grain crops, grass lands, 
or any other way the farmer's quick wit will point out." 

In the month of June, I prepared a solution of geine, 
obtained not by boiling, but by steeping the mud as taken 
from the meadow, in a weak ley in tubs. I did not weigh 
the materials, being careful only to use no more mud 
than the potash would render soluble. The proportion 
was something like this : peat 100 lbs., potash 1 lb., water 
50 gallons — stirred occasionally for about a week, when 
the dark brown solution described by Dr. Dana, was dip- 
ped off and applied to some rov/s of corn, a portion of a 
piece of starved barley, and a bed of onions sown on land 
not well prepared for that crop. The corn was a portion 
of a piece of manured as above mentioned. On this the 
benefit was not so obvious. The crop of barley on the 
portion watered, was more than double the quantity both 
in straw and grain to that on other portions of the field, 
the soil and treatment of which was otherwise precisely 
similar. 

The bed of onions which had been prepared by dressing 
it with a mixture of mud and ashes previous to the sow- 
ing of the seed, but which had not by harrowing been so 
completely pulverized, mixed and kneaded with the soil, 
as the cultivators of this crop deemed essential to success, 
consisted of three and a half square rods. The onions 
came up well, were well weeded, and about two bushels 
of fresh horse manure spread between the rows. In June, 
four rows were first watered with the solution of geine 
above described. In ten days the onions in these rows 
were nearly double the size of the others. All but six 
rows of the remainder were then watered. The growth 
of these soon outstripped the unwatered remainder. 



202 APPENDIX. 

Mr. Henry Gould, who manages my farm on shares, 
and who conducted all the foregoing experiments, with- 
out thinking of the importance of leaving at least one row 
unwatered that we might better ascertain the true effect 
of this management, seeing the benefit to the parts thus 
watered, in about a week after, treated the remainder in 
the same manner. The ends of some of the rows, how- 
ever, which did not receive the watering produced only 
very small onions, such as are usually thrown away as 
worthless by cultivators of this crop. This fact leads me 
to believe that if the onions had not been watered with 
the solution of geine, not a single bushel of a good size 
would have been produced on the whole piece. At any 
rate, it was peat or geine rendered soluble by alkali, that 
produced this large crop. 

The crop proved greater than our most sanguine ex- 
pectations. The onions were measured in the presence 
of the chairman of your committee, and making ample 
allowance for the tops whicli had not been stripped off, 
were adjudged equal to four bushels to the acre. In these 
experiments, 7 lbs. of potash which cost 7 cents a pound, 
bought at the retail price were used. Potash, although 
dearer than wood ashes at 12^ cents per bushel, is, I think 
cheaper than the whitewash mentioned by Dr Dana, and 
sufficiently cheap to make with meadow mud, a far 
cheaper manure than such as is in general used among 
our farmers. The experiment satisfies me that nothing 
better than potash and peat can be used for most if not all 
our cultivated vegetables, and the economy of watering 
with a solution of geine, such as are cultivated in rows, I 
think cannot be doubted. The reason why the corn was 
not very obviously benefitted, I think, must have been, 
that the portion of the roots to which it was applied, was 
already fully supplied with nutriment out of the same kind 
from the peat ashes and manure put in the bill at planting. 
For watering rows of onions or other vegetables, I should 
recommend that a cask be mounted on light wheels, so 
set that like the drill they may run each side of the row 
and drop the liquid manure through a small tap hole or 
tub from the cask, directly upon the young plants. For 
preparing the liquor, T should recommend a cistern about 
three feet deep and as large as the object may require, 
formed of plank and laid on a bed of clay and surrounded 
by the same^ in the manner that tan vats are constructed j 



APPENDIX. 203 

this should occupy a warm place, exposed to the sun, near 
the water, and as near as these requisites permit to the 
tillage lands of the farm. In such a cistern in warm 
weather, a solution of geine may be made in large quanti- 
ties with little labor and without the expense of fuel, as 
the heat of the sun is, I think, amply sufficient for the 
purpose. If from further experiment it should be found 
economical to water grass lands and grain crops, a large 
cask or casks placed on wheels and drawn by oxen or 
horse power, the liquor from tlie casks being at pleasure 
let into a long narrow box perforated with numerous 
small holes, which would spread the same over a strip of 
ground, some 6, 8, or 10 feet in breadth, asjitis drawn over 
the field in the same manner as the streets in cities are 
watered in summer. 

ANDREW NICHOLS. 



I certify that I measured the piece of land mentioned in 
the foregoing statement, as planted with corn, on the 21st 
of September, 1639, and found the same to contain two 
acres, three quarters, thirty-one rods. 

John W. Proctor, Surveyor. 



Dr. Andrew NiclioWs Statement of 1840. 

Gentlemen : — Having invited the attention of the 
Trustees of the Essex Agricultural Society to our con- 
tinued use of, and experiments on, fresh meadow or peat 
mud, as a manure, it is of course, expected that the re- 
sult of these experiments should be laid before them. 
The*compost with which we planted most of our corn and 
potatoes the present year, was composed of the same ma- 
terials, and managed in the same manner as that which 
we used last year for the same purpose. 

Four acres of corn, on the same kind of soil, was ma- 
nured in the hill with this compost, and one acre of corn 
on a more meagre portion of the same field, was manured 
in the same manner, with a compost consisting of the 
same kind of mud, half a cord of manure taken from the 
pigsty, and forty pounds of potash, second quality, dis- 
solved in water, sprinkled over and worked into the heap, 
8 



204 . APPENDIX. 

with the fork, in the same manner that the dry ashes 
were into the other compost. Of both kinds the same 
quantity, a common iron or steel shovel full to the hill, 
was used, and no difference in the crop which could be 
ascribed to the different manures, could be perceived. 
The hills were four by three feet apart on an average. 
In the borders and adjoining this piece of corn, one acre 
was planted with potatoes. The compost used in some 
portions of this consisted of rather a larger portion of 
coarse barn manure composed of meadow hay, corn fod- 
der waste, &c., wet with urine and mixed with the drop- 
pings of cattle, and less meadow mud. The whole six 
acres was hoed twice only after the use of the cultivator. 
The whole amount of labor after the ground was furrowed 
and the compost prepared in heaps on the field, is stated 
by the tiller of the ground, H. L. Gould, to have been 
forty-nine day's work of one man previous to the cutting 
of the stalks. Pumpkins, squashes, and some beans were 
planted among the corn. The produce was four hundred 
and sixty bushel baskets of sound corn, eighty bushels of 
potatoes, three cords of pumpkins, one and a half bushels 
of white beans. On one acre of the better part of the 
soil, harvested separately, there were one hundred and 
twenty baskets of corn ears, and a full proportion of the 
pumpkins. On one-eighth of an acre of Thorburn's tree 
corn treated in the same manner as the rest, the produce 
was nineteen baskets. A basket of this corn shells out 
seventeen quarts, one quart more than a basket of the or- 
dinary kinds of corn. The meal for bread and puddings 
is of a superior quality. Could we depend upon its ri- 
pening, for, Thorburn's assertions to the contrary not- 
withstanding, it is a late variety of corn, (though it ri- 
pened perfectly with us last season, a rather unusually 
warm and long one,) farmers would do well to cultivate 
it more extensively than any other kind. 

The use of dry ashes on our black soil grass lands 
showed an increased benefit from last year. But our ex- 
periments with liquid manure disappointed us. Either 
from its not being of the requisite strength, or from the 
dryness of the season, or from our mistaking the effects 
of it last y^ar, or from all these causes combined, the re- 
sults confidently anticipated, were not realized \ and from 
our experiments this year we have nothing to say in fa- 
for of its use, although we think it worthy of further ex- 



APPENDIX. 205 

periments. On the first view of the subject, a dry season 
or a dry time might seem more favorable to the manifest- 
ations of benefit from watering plants with liquid manure, 
than wet seasons or times. But when we consider that 
when the surface of the earth is dry, the small quantity 
of liquid used would be arrested by the absorbing earth 
ere it reached the roots, and perhaps its fertilizing quali- 
ties changed, evaporated, or otherwise destroyed, by the 
greater heat to which at such times it must be exposed — 
it is not, I think, improbable that the different effects no- 
ticed in our experiments with this substance, the two 
past years, might be owing to this cause. It is ray inten- 
tion, should sufficient leisure permit, to analyze the soil 
cultivated and the mud used, and prepare a short essay 
on the subject of peat mud, muck, sand, &c., as manure, 
for publication in the next volume of the transactions of 
the society. 

Yours, respectfully, 

, ANDREW NICHOLS. 

DanverSj December 20, 1840. 



No. II — Extract from Dr. Nichols's Letter. 

Danvers, Jan. 28, 1842. 

Dear Sir : — I am sorry to say that I have no new 
facts to communicate. Nor have I any thing that con- 
tradicts my former views on the subject of peat, as ma- 
nure. We used it in compost on about nine acres of corn 
and potatoes last summer, one-half of which was the same 
land on which it was used the preceding season. Its ef- 
fect seemed not to be lessened by this second trial in the 
same soil. The compost was as formerly composed by 
mixing the mud, barn manure, ashes or potash together 
in the field, in spring, two or three weeks before the corn 
was planted ; in a part of it, say, the manure for two 
acres, about 20 lbs. of nitrate of potash were used. Where v- 
er the nitre was used, worms were absent; other parts of 
the field were more or less injured by them. This was 
all the ffood that we could positively ascribe to the nitre. 
Our ciwps were in a most ffourishing condition on the 
morning of the 30th of June, in the afternoon and evening 



206 APPENDIX. 

of that day, a violent tempest and two showers of hail, 
blew down my barn, half my fruit trees, and prostrated 
and mangled the corn. I should have bargained readily 
with any one who would have insured me half the crop 
realized the preceding year from the same land and man- 
agement. But the healing powers of nature and genial 
influences of summer suns and showers, in a few days re- 
stored the field again to a flourishing condition. A drought 
more severe than that of the preceding season followed 
in August; and our crop of corn per acre, was about 1-4 
less than the crop of that year. My farmer, H. L. Gould, 
from his success with the mud which you analyzed, was 
strongly impressed with the belief that other peat mud 
would not prove as good. I requested him to make an 
experiment, which he accordingly did, with two cart loads 
of peat, such as makes good fuel, taken directly from the 
swamp, mixed with ashes, and used in the same quantity 
by measure, as the other compost. He planted with this 
four rows of corn through the piece. And, contrary to 
his expectations, if there was any difference, he acknowl- 
edged that these rows were better than the adjoining 
ones. The mud you analyzed, contained, you recollect, 
a large portion of granitic sand; this peat much less 
sand but more water, it being quite spongy. The same 
bulk, therefore, as taken from the meadow and used in 
our experiment would probably have weighed, when dry, 
not more than 1-3 or 1-4 as much as the other.' The 
quantity of geine in the shovelful of the two kinds, varies 
not very much after all. I regret that Mr Gould did not 
repeat his experiments with the solution of geine last sea- 
son. My farm is seven miles from my residence, and, 
like yourself I turn no furrows with my own hand, nor 
can I oversee in their various stages, experiments there. 
I suggest, advise, and leave him to execute. He found 
himself too much hurried with his work, to attend to this 
subject at the proper time. In answer to your question I 
say — that the solution the 2nd year was not applied to the 
same land, and although used in much larger quantities, 
it was not as strong as that used the past year. 
Yours, respectfully, 

ANDREW NICHOLS. 
To S. L. Dana, M. D. 



APPENDIX. 207 

It will be olijserved that about three cords of swamp 
mud and 33 bushels of ashes, have been used per acre, in 
1839, and 40 lbs. of potash in 1840. 

The number of hills is 3630 per acre. Then calculating 
the real potash, there were given to each hill of corn, about 
1-2 pint of ashes, or 32 grains of alkali in 1839, and 45 
grains in 1840. 

If three cords of swamp muck, were used in 1840, about 
6 oz. of dry geine have been applied per hill — the muck 
being like pond mud. Now 45 grains of alkali and 6 oz, of 
geine, and ^—-^ of a cord of pig manure per hill, have here 
produced effects equal to guano. No new source of ni- 
trogen has been opened to the corn. The effects are due 
then, to the alkaline action on geine, and of salts upon 
silicates. The failure of the solution in the second year, 
is probably owing to the formation of sulphuretted hydro- 
gen, see section (238). 



No. III. — Letter from Hon. Wm. Clark, Jr. 

Northampton, 10th Feb'y, 1842. 
Dear Sir : — 

The results of the few trials I have made with alkalies to 
neutralize the acididity of swamp muck, have not been 
ascertained with that precision that is necessary to deter- 
mine conclusively which is best. I will, however, give 
you the experiments (if they deserve the name,) as they 
were made, with the apparent results. The first was with 
fine well decomposed muck, from the swamp of which 
you had samples, numbered 5, 6, and 7. In the spring of 
1840, 16 lbs. of soda-ash or white ash, dissolved in water, 
were carefully mixed with two estimated tons of the 
muck, and the mixture applied as a top dressing for corn. 
Two other estimated tons of the muck were served with 
eight bushels of dry wood ashes, all well mixed together 
and spread on one side of the muck that was served with 
the white ash, and further on, an equal quantity of fresh 
barn yard manure was spread, and still further on, an 
equal quantity of compost, made of one part barn manure, 
and two parts muck, mixed and fermented before using. 



208 APPENDIX. 

The land was a light sandy loam, on the border of a 
pine plain, and the whole field was treated alike in all 
respects, except the different kinds of manure, all of which 
was spread on the turned furrow, and harrowed in before 
planting. The corn planted where the wood ashes and 
muck were spread, early took precedence of all the other 
parcels, and continued apparently much the best through 
the season. Among the other parcels, no striking differ- 
ence in growth or yield was manifest. The whole field 
was harvested together without separate weight or meas- 
urement; and the advantage which the ashes and muck 
apparently gave over the others, rests (where no experi- 
ment should rest,) on the opinion of those whose attention 
was called to it, while the corn was growing. 

A similar trial of ashes and muck, and soda and muck, 
was made the same season on grass land ; and the ad- 
vantage was decidedly in favor of the soda-ash and muck, 
as on the corn land, it was in favor of the ashes and 
muck. 

Why the soda-ash should act relatively, more favorably 
upon the muck spread on grass land, than when spread 
on corn land, I am unable to determine, unless it be the 
partial shade which the grass affords to protect it from 
the direct rays of the sun, and measurably preserve its 
moisture and softness. This inference is strengthened by 
the fact that muck, treated as in the above cases — with 
soda-ash in solution, (which makes it somewhat pasty,) in 
the only instance I have tried it — spread on the surface of 
an old field, without a protecting crop, or subsequent har- 
rowings to cover it in the soil, became apparently sun 
baked so hard, as to defy, for a time at least, the soften- 
ing action of water. This hardening effect was not ob- 
served to take place with the muck treated with the dry 
ashes, or in the manure compost, and may have arisen 
from the insufficient quantity of alkali used in the case 
mentioned. 

In another case, one lb. of soda ash, and one lb. of soft 
soap, were mixed with four bushels of muck, and all put 
in a fifty gallon tub, and the tub filled with water, and 
left to stand five or six days, with an occasional stirring; 
at the end of that period, the dark coloured water was 
dipped off and applied to various garden plants and vege- 
tables, and the tub again filled with water, and the muck 
stirred up, and after a day or two the water was again 



APPENDIX. 209 

dipped off and applied as before, and the tub again filled 
with water. This process was continued for two or three 
weeks in the early part of the season, and the muck, 
though gradually wasting, without additional alkali, con- 
tiniied to ferment from time to time, and yield black li- 
quor, to appearance nearly as rich as at first. Rapid 
growth of the plants, followed in all cases when it was 
applied, and its effect upon a lot of onions, would have 
been ascertained with considerable accuracy, had not a 
" hired man," took it into his head that the few rows pur- 
posely left for comparison, were suffering by unwitting 
neglect, and gave them a " double dose," thereby equali- 
zing the growth, and sacrificing the experiment to his 
honest notions of fair dealing, which required that all 
should be treated alike. In another case, a muck compost 
dressing, formed by previously slacking quicklime with a 
strong brine of common salt, to disenoao-e the acid of the 
salt, that its soda might acton the muck when in contact, 
was applied as a top dressing for corn, without any percep- 
tible effect, perhaps for want of skill in compounding. 

Facts abundantly testify to the fertilizing properties of 
swamp muck and peat, when brought to a right state, and 
the subject of your enquiry, perhaps yields to no other, at 
the present time, in point of importance to our good old 
Commonwealth. Taking your estimate of the weight of 
fresh dug muck or peat, and Professor Hitchcock's esti- 
mate of the quantity in the state, and the saving of one 
cent per ton, in the expense of neutralizing its acidity, 
and fitting it for use in agriculture, when applied to all 
our swamp muck and peat, will amount to an aggregate 
saving to the industry of the Commonwealth, of over five 
and a half millions of dollars. Is there a reasonable doubt 
that more than ten times this one per cent per ton will be 
saved over any present process, when chemistry has shed 
its full light on the subject .' 

The magnitude and importance of a small saving in 
this matter, must certainly have been overlooked by some 
who have given advice on the subject of making muck 
compost. Respectfully, 

Your most ob't serv't 

WILLIAM CLARK, Jr. 
S. L. Dana, M. D., Lowell. Mass. 



INDEX. 



Section. 

Acetates, formation of, 47 

Acids, « 44, 52, 65 

" " in plants, 93, 98 

" " " salts necessary to, 98 

" action of, 46, 47, 153 

" " on alkalies, . 46 

" in salts, action of, 150 

" " cause of peculiarity of action of, 145 

" difference in constitution of, 156, 157 

" different strength of, 166 

" rule for naming, 66 

*' combine only in their equivalents, 58 

** in soil, when free, , 162 

" Crenic, (page 79) 103 

" Apocrenic, 103 

" " and Crenic, nitrogen in, 103 

*' Phosphoric, 163 

*' Sulphuric, 153 

*' weak, action on sugar, (p. 77) 

Agriculture, improvement of, 289 

" mineralogy of, 37 

" value of small discoveries in, 128 

*' relation to silicates and salts, 91 

Agricultural Chemistry, aims of, 1 

" " first principle of, 19 

" " second " 20 

" « third " 29 

" " fourth " 75 



2r^ 


INDEX. 




Section. 


Agricultural Chemistry, fifth " 




84 


(( 


(( (i (( 


chemical proof of, 84 


(i 


(( (( u 


agricultural 


" 85 


t( 


" sixth ' 




91 


it 


" seventh ' 


i 


95 


(( 


" eighth ' 




104 


(t 


" ninth ' 




134 


t( 


(( (( ( 


result of, 


135 


(t 


" tenth ' 




145 


(( 


Geology, 




2,3 


Albumen, analysis of. 




217 


(( 


in dung, 




184, 201 


Alkalies, 






41 


(( 


properties of, 




46 


(( 


strong resemblance in. 




6^ 


(( 


catalytic action of, 




126 


(C 


combine only in their equivalents. 


58 


(( 


sufficiency of in soil, 




75 


(( 


in soil not free. 




76 


(( 


effects on geine, 


126, 128, 136, 


142, 162 






264, 


276, 137 


(( 


" " cause of. 


137 


(C 


in ashes. 




163 


l( 


action of carbonates on. 




159, 169 


(( 


action oi> vegetable fibre 


» 


136 


(( 


(( (( (( 


connected wi 


th 




growth of plants. 




137 


tt 


soluble. 




272 


(t 


" within the reach of all, 


274 


C( 


other forms of cheap, 




275 


(( 


action of salt on, 




275 


(( 


stearate of, 




227 


(( 


margarate of, 




227 


Alkaline 


geates. 




118, 124 


(( 


bases. 




62 


(( 


" affinity of, for carbonic acid. 


62 


Alum, formation of, 




79 


Alumina 


, geate of. 




121 


(( 


phosphate of. 




80 


(( 


silicate of. 




48 


(( 


insolubility of, in water, 




62 


(( 


quantity of, in rock. 




58 


(( 


combining weight of. 




56 


(( 


peculiarities of, 




64 



INDEX. 213 

Section. 

Ammonia, 166 

" in manure, 17S 

" in cow dung, 186, 187 

" produced 3'early by one cow, 191 

" the main value of manure, 192 

*' catalytic action of, 194 

" sources of, 200 

*' in proteine, 219 

" in bone, 223 

" in all animal matters, 216 

" in peat, 260 

" action of, in dung, 263 

*' chemical equivalent of, 265 

" equal to soda for agricultural purposes, 265 

Ammoniacal salts of urine, 246 

Ammonia, salts of, (p. 79) 

Animal matter, 167 

" " use of,^ 194 

" " all affords geine, ammonia and salts, 216 

" source of alkali for peat, 277 

" products may be divided into two classes, 220 

" " first class of, 221 

" " second " 221 

Animalized coal, - 210 

Anthracite coal, ashes of, 163 

Apocrenic acid, (p. 79) 

" " nitrogen in, " 

Ashes, action on soil, 135 

" value of, 163 

" constituents of, 163 

" divisible in two parts, 163 

" of hard wood, analysis of, 163 

" " soluble part of, 163 

" " insoluble " 163 

" pine, analysis of, 163 

" wheat straw, 163 

" anthracite coal, 163 

" leached, value of, 163 

" " contents of cord of, 164 

" " salts in, 164 

Atoms, combinations of, 55 

Atomic weight, 55 

" " theory of, 55 

Author, not a practical farmer, 271 



214 INDEX. 

B 





Section ^ 


Barley, limits of, 


, 26, 28 


" " cause of. 


26 


" temperature necessary to growth, 


26 


" " of germination, 


26 


Bases, alkaline, 


41 


" " properties of, 


62 


*' " equivalents of. 


62 


** " action on geine, 


147 


*' metallic. 


58 


" carbonates of, in ashes, 


92 


" separated from the acid. 


142 


" of all salts, acts ever the same, 


145, 152 


Bones, constituents of, 


223 


" bone earth in, 


223 


" tallow in after boilin*, 


223 


Burning of crops. 


287 


" " effects of, 


287 


c 




Carbon, chemical equivalent of, 


57 


" in sandy soil. 


127 


" sulphuret of, 


65 


Carbonates, 


52, 159 


" of ammonia, 


265 


" of lime in leached ashes. 


164 


Carbonic acid, formation of, 


57 


" " chemical equivalent of. 


57 


" " affinity for alkaline bases, 


62 


" " cause of, 


93, 170 


" " absorbed by geates, 


120 


" " action on silicates, 133, 


, 134, 159 


" " " " result of, 


135 


" " in plants, 


167 


" " composition of. 


55 


Carburets, 


49 


Cartilage of bone, as manure, 


223 


Caseine, analysis of. 


217 


Catalysis, action of. 


137 


" definition of. 


69 


Catalytic power, 129, 140, 


141, 142 


Chemical equivalent, definition of. 


56 


" " important to farmers, 


58 


" forrnulcB, of proteifie, 


219 



INDEX. 215 

Section. 

Chlorine in soil, 89 

Chlorides, 170 

" source of, ~ 84 

Chalk in eggshells, 215 

" clamshells, 215 

Combining number, 55 

Compost of animal matter, 167 

Copperas, 170 

Cotton, phosphates in, 86 

Cow dung, the type of manures, 179 

" composition of, 179 

" analysis of, 180 

" value of, dependent on food, 200 

" water in, 183 

" general analysis of, 105, 188 

" ammonia in, 186, 107 

" ultimate analysis of, 186 

" quantity produced by one cow, 189 

" compared with horse-dung, 284 

« cost of, 276 

" from meal compared with from hay, 199 

" richer in summer than winter, 200 

" action of, 201 

Crenic acid, (p. 79) 

" " nitrogen in, " 



> 


D 




Decay, 

K 


definition of, 
first product of, 
hastened by potash and lime, 
" alumina, 

E 


107 
110 
136 
136 


Eggshells, lime in. 
Elements defined, 


215 
35 




number of. 


40 




atomic. 


55 




earthy and metallic, 
volatile and combustible, 


40 
40 




division of. 


41 




" adopted, 
unequal affinity of, 
combination of, 
proportion of combination, 


61 

54,55 

55 

56 



216 INDEX. 

Section. 

Elements of soil, action of, 130 

" " defined, 131 

" " two classes of, 101 

" " first class of, 102 

" " second " 103 

*' metallic, change to unmetallic, 64 

" mineral, cause of decomposition of, 137 

** number selected by plants, 87 
" wherein plants do not obey chemical laws of, 87 

" susceptibility of change, 90 

" number of, in organic parts of soil, 89 

" " inorganic " « 89 

" organic, complex combination of, 99 

" inorganic, simple " 99 

*' organic, character of, 99 

" " products of decomposition of, 100 
" " one constant, ^ 100, 101 

" inorganic, " 115 

" organic, of plants, 167 

" relative weight of, 55 

" of silicates, laws of combination of, 56 

Epsom salts, formation of, 79 

Evaporation from soil, 294 

" " woodland, 295 

F 

Farmer, the, a chemist, 39 

" philosophy of, 36 

" pole-star of, 36 

" knowledge of terms, 36 

" important fact to, 79 

" true field of action of, 103 

" first requisite of, 172 

Fats, action of air on, 224 

" action on silicates, 224 

" chemical composition of, 224 

Feathers, analysis of, 218 

Felspar, ingredients of, 60 

" soda in, 61 

" action of air and moisture on, 77 

Fertility, what dependent on, 98, 152 

Fibrine, analysis of, 217 

Flowers, salts in, 86 

Fruit trees, limits of, 26 



Ge 



INDEX. 217 

G 

Section. 

ne, researches of Mulder, (p. 76) 

history of, (p. 72) 

first discovery of, " 

contents of, (p. 73) 

potash in, " 

called ulmin in trees, (p. 74) 

same as " {pp. 77, 78, 70) 

constitution of, (pp. 82, 84) 

names of, (p. 83) 

definition of, 101, 101, 102, 106 

distinctions of, 103 

essential to crops, 104 

in all forms the same, 105 

a generic term, 105 

described, 108, 109 

divided, 109 

soluble, what dissolved by, 109 

properties of, important to the fanner, 109 

passage from insoluble to soluble, 110, 113 

affinity for alumina. 111 

" lime, magnesia, 111, 126 

" oxides of iron and manganese, 112 

uncombined, 115 

» properties of, 160, 116, 117 

properties of, with water, 125 

relations to alkalies, 126, 136 

quantity in soil, 127 

twofold action of, 136 

cause of effect of alkalies on, 137 

how retained in soil, 138 

fertility dependent on, 151 

necessary with salts, 153 

action of oxygen on, 168 

as required by nature, 171 

in cow-dung, 185 

formed daily by one cow, 189 

" yearly *' " 189 

the main agricultural value of manure, 191 

action of, in manure, 195 

in horse-dung, 204 

compared with glycerine, 233, 234, 235, 236 

in spent ley, , 838 



218 INDEX. 

Section. 

Geine, in peat, 256 

" in rivers at freshets, 283 

" intention of application of, 291 

" varies much in soil, 291 

" lightest part of soil, 292 

" absorption of moisture by, 294 

" " gas by, 295 

" slow evaporation of, 294 

" effect of conversion into water, 295 

" electrical relations of, 297 

" basis of agriculture, 298 

" table of composition of, (p. 81) 

" comparison of natural and artificial, (pp. 81, 83) 

" modifications of, (p. 85) 

Geates, character of, 118 

" properties of, , 124 

" formation of, 136 

" abundant in soil, 162 

" action of lime on, 162 

" of lime, 118 

*' of magnesia, 120 

*' of alumina, 121 

" of iron, 322 

" of manganese, 123 

G^ic acid, 116 

Gelatin, description of, 218 

" analysis of, 218 

Glass, green, composition of, 71 

Glauber's salts, 170 

Glycerine, 227 

" composed of, 227 

" the organic part of ley, 229 

« compared with geine, 233, 234, 235, 236 

" difi^erence from geine, 236 

Grain, crops of, in Massachusetts, 23 

" northern boundary of, 26 

" failure of, in Iceland, 26 

« " " cause of, 26 

" temperature " of germination, 26 

Granite, formation of, 5 

" composed of, 71, 72 

Guano, great quantity of, 211 

" analyses of, 212 

" an article of commerce, 212 



INDEX. 



219 



Guano, use of, 

" ammonia in, 
" varieties of, 

Gypsum, application of, 
" action of, 



H 



Hair, analysis of, 
Hail, fertilizing power of. 
Hay, action of catalysis on. 
Heat, absorbed by soils. 
Hen, food of, 

" analysis of, 

eggs of, « 
excrements of, " 

" salts in, 

agricultural value of. 
Hog manure, 

" " value of, 
Horn, analysis of. 
Hornblende, ingredients of, 

" action of, air and moisture on, 

Horse dung, analysis of, 

" " value compared with cow dung, 
Hog urine, analysis of, 

Humic acid, (pp. 75, 

Humin, 102 

Humus, (p. 75) 102 

" constituents of, (p. 77) 

" formation of, " 

Humin, formula of, (p, 78) 

Humic acid, " (p. 80) 

Humate of ammonia, (P- ^9) 

Hydrogen, 40 

" in sandy soil, 127 

" considered as unity, 55 

" combination of, * 55 

I 

Indian corn, northern limit of, 26 

" " temperature of germination, 26 

Irrigation, 254, 279, 281, 282, 283 

" most fertile source of benefit from, 283 

*' natural, 286 

9 



Section. 
212 
212 
212 
151 
151 

218 
286 
184 
293 
214 
214 
214 
214 
214 
214 
205 
205 
218 

6a 

77 

203 

204 

247 

82) 116 



220 INDEX. 

Section. 

Iron, carburet of, 65 

" geate of, 122 

•' phosphate of, 80 

*' silicate of, 48 

" sulphate of, formation, 79 

♦' " action, 82 

" sulphuret of, 65 

*' " decomposition of, 79 

*' combining weight of, 56 

Isinglass, physical properties of, 37 

Isotheral line, 26 

Isochimenal line, 26 

Isomorphism, law of, 94 

Isomorphous substitution, 94 

" " importance -of this law, 96 

*' *» relates only to organic acids, 97 

L 

Life, a catalytic power, 139 

*' first action of, 171 

Lime, action of, 159, 161, 162 

" " on vegetable fibre, 160, 162 

*' *' on free acids in soil, 162, 163 

" properties of, 160 

*' secretion of, 18 

" in soil, 30 

*« sufficiency of, in soil, 75 

" not free * " 76 

** combining weight of, 56 

" in dung, 192 

** in eggshells, 215 

*' in granite, 72 

*» in pine plains, 73, 74 

** in wheat straw, 74 

*' place of, may be supplied, 96 

** corrective of too much, 124 

*» hastens decay, 136 

" misapplication of, 160, 161 

*' caustic, 62 

»« " greedy of carbonic acid, 161 
" carbonate of, 14, 45, 57 

»' " in ashes, 92, 164 

" «• extent of use, 169 

" " in flowers and leaves, " 86 



INDEX. 221 

Section. 

Lime, composts of, 166 

geates of, 118 

" soluble, 118 

" insoluble, 119 

phosphate of, 57, 82 

" cause of, , 84 

" in all soil, ' 84 
" in bones of graminiverous animals, 86 

" in vegetables, 86 

" in grain and cotton, 86 

silicate of, 48 

sulphate of, 53, 57, 80, 82, 83 

" in all soil, 84 

muriate of, 170 

Loam, formation of, 76 

. M 

Magnesia, 18 

combining weight of, 56 

caustic, 62 

may supply the place of lime, 91 

geate of, 120 

phosphate of, in vegetables, 85 

silicate of, 48 

Man, the journeyman of nature, 290 

Manganese, geate of, 123 

" silicate of, 48 

Manure, 172, 252 

the farmer's first requisite, 172 

what composed of, 172 

immense variety of, 174 

divisible into three classes, 175 

chiefly of the third class, 176 

standard measure of, 177, 179 

the elements of fertility, 178 

contents of, 178 

the type of, 179 

" composition of, 179 

from one cow, 189, 190, 191 

chief value of, 193, 194, 195, 261 

rich in proportion to nitrogen, 196, 261 

what reduced to, 206 

three varieties, different properties of, 206 

" ♦' comparativ* value of 207 



222 INDET. 

Section, 

Manure, various sorts of, 208 

" dung of fowls, 213 

" " " good results from use of 213 

" not containing nitrogen, 224 

" from salts only, 239 
" " chiefly from liquid animal 

evacuations, 239 

" of peculiar salts, 239 
« of animal acids, 239, 240 

" liquid of cow, composition of, 243 

" **^ " compared with dung, 243 
" ** *' quantity annually from one 

cow, effects of, 244 

^* liquid of horse, 245 

" " man, 248 

" natural, insufficient for all, 252 

" artificial, 253 

*' " distinction of, from animal, 253 

" " first in this class, 254 

" " others " " 254 

*' green, action upon peat, 270 

" artificial, cost per cord, 274, 276 

" " " compared with cow dung, 274 

" " preparation of, in best manner, 274 

" other sources of, 284 

" sheep, analysis of, 205 

" hog, 205 

" sheep, value of, 205 

Margarine, 227 

Margaric acid, 227 

Metals, 41 

Mica, properties of, 37 

" ingredients of, 60 

" action of air and wet on, 77 

Minerals, simple, 35 

" " number of, 38, 59 

" " limited knowledge of, 38 

" " elements of, 39 

^' " table of constitution of, 59 

" " three classes >of, 60 

Mould, organic elements of, acc'g to Berzelius, (p. 81) 

Muck, action on sand, 289 

Mud, value of, 258, 259 



INDEX. 



223 



Section. 

Mud, compared with dun^, 259 

" of freshets, analysis of, 284 

Muriates, 170 

" source of, 84 

Nails, the, analysis of, „ 218 

Nature, b'eneficence of, 285 

Night soil, composition of, 205 

" " " nitrogen in, 205 

Nitrates, 166 

" action of, 167 

Nitre, composition of, 168 

" one of the most active salts, 168 

Nitro-humic acid, (p. 83) 

Nitrogen in soil, 101 

" in sandy soil, 127 

" in crenic and apocrenic acids, 103 

" in geine, 127 

" in air, 167 

" source of, for roots and seeds, 167 

in manure, 178 

produced yearly by one cow, 191 

action of, 194 

the chief enriching quality in manure, 196 

the basis of ammonia, 196 

in dung, source of, 197 

in hay, what becomes of, 198 

in horse dung, 204 

" in night soil, 205 

" in cow dung, 268 

" distinguishing feature of organized bodies, 217 

o 

Oats, limit of, 26, 28 

*' temperature of germination, 26 

Oils, action of air on, 224 

" action on silicates, 224 

Oleine, 227 

Oleic acid, 227 

Organic matter in cow dung, 180 

" " " according to Morin, 181 

" «t tc n M. Penot, 182 

" •' " ultimate analysis of, 186 

Oxides, metallic, 49 

" of iron, combining weight of, 66 



224 INDEX. 

Section. 

Oxides of manganese, " " 56 

Oxygen, 40, 49 

*' combining weight of, 56 

** in bases of organic acid salts, 98 

** in sandy soil, 127 

" action of, on geine, 168 

»» " silicates, 168 

** in water, action of, 281 

P 

Pearlash, properties of, 46 
" to be used one-half more than soda-ash, 265 

Peat, ^ 254, 255 

" analysis of, 256 

*' varieties of, 257 

" water in, 259 

" value of, 259 

*' ashes, contents of, 163 

** compared with cow dung, 254 

" salts and geine in, 260 

** resemblance to cow dung, 260 

*' ammonia in, 260 

** power wanting in, 261 

" " " how to be given, 262 

** addition of alkali to, 264 

** quantity of alkali to hundred weight, 266 

" " " cord, fresh dug, 267, 269 
" " " " dry, 267, 269, 271 

" dung to be added to, 270, 276 

*' action of dung on, 276 

" boiled with alkali, 271, 272 

*' mixed with spent ashes, 272 

" within reach of all, 274 

" action of lime and salt on, 276 

" " sal ammoniac on, 276 
*' converted by other sources into soluble manure, 277 

" mixed with urine, 277, 278 
" natural products in, (p. 79) 

Pigeon dung, 213 

" " value of, 214 

Pine ashes, analysis of, 163 

" plains, lime and potash in, 73, 74 

Plants for food, 22 

" " product of, 22. 



INDEX. 225 

Section. 

" repay labor of cultivation, 22 

" natural limit of, 24 

" artificial " 24 

" limits of, what determined by, 25 

** laws of distribution of, 26 

" irregularity of limits of, 26 

" limits of grain bearing on mountains, 28 

" earthy parts of, 39 

" not all contain same elements, 88 

" elements of, return to earth, 88 

" always contain salts and silicates, 91 

" always form acids, 93 

" galvanic action of, 171 

" decomposing action of, 171 

" animal principles in, 217 

" " " analysis of, 217 

Plaster of Paris, formation of, 79 

" " application of, 151 

« " action of, 151, 170 

Phosphates, 52 

" action of, 169 

Phosphorus, equivalent of, 57 

" existence of, 84 

Phosphoric acid, * 57 

" equivalent of, 57 

Phosphurets, 49 

" action of air on, 78 

Potash, silicate of, 48, 165 

" combining weight of, 56 

" solubility in water, 62 

" caustic, 62 

" in granite, 72 

" carbonate of, in ashes, 92 

" may supply the place of lime, 96 

" hastens decay, 136 

" to be used one-half more than soda, 265 

Potassium, sulphuret of, 65 

Ploughing in of crops, 287 

" " great fertilizing power of, 287 

« " green, action of, 288 

«* " " compared with dry, 288 

Potato, limits of, 26 

Poudrette, 208,209,210 



22« 


INDEX. 


Section. 


Poudr 


ette, composition of. 


208 


t( 


• ammonia in, 


■208 


(1 


' peat in, 


209 


(1 


salts in, 


209 


Prote 


ine. 


(p. 85) 218 


(1 


description"of. 


218 


(i 


chemical formulae of, 


219 


(( 


action of weak acid on, 

Q 


(p. 84) 


Quartz, formation of. 


60 


it 


odor produced by friction, 

R 


84 


Rain, 


natural irrigation. 


S86 


ii 


fertilizing power of, 


286 


t( 


ammoniacal salts in, 


286 


Rocks, primitive, 


5,6 


i( 


secondary, 


5,8 


ti 


trappean. 


7 


i( 


origin of. 


10,11 


t( 


chemical constituents of. 


8 


(( 


two great classes of, 


10,11 


C( 


distribution of, 


n 


1( 


first class of. 


;i2 


(( 


second '* 


13 


it 


chemical constitution of. 


15, 39 


«l 


" " difference 


in, 35 


«t 


fossiliferous, 


16 


<( 


non-fossiliferous. 


17 


t( 


cause of difference, 


18 


i( 


amount of " 


19 


t( 


only one, in truth, 


19 


(( 


not affect vegetation. 


20, 26, 27, 28 


it 


what covered by. 


30 


«< 


different views of. 


34 


tt 


compound. 


35 


it 


composition of, 


38 


it 


number of elements in, 


40,45 


(t 


great bulk of, 


48 


if 


enrich soil, 


290 


it 


action of, on soil, 


290 


Rye, 


limit of, 


26,28 


it 


temperature of germination. 


26 



(( 



INDEX. 227 

Sectiotl. 

S 

Sal ammoniac, action of, 276 

Salt, action of, 149 

" use of, 170 
Salts, 40, 44, 45, 46, 50, 76 

" super, sub, neutral, 57 

very insoluble, and abundant, 80 
action on silicates, 133, 171 
« « of, 143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150,171 

" " on of plants, 147 

*' fertility dependent on, 151 

" connection with geine necessary, 154 

*' action of, without geine, 155 

" " on soil of slate, 155 

*' " " gneiss, 155 

" excess of, the cause of barrenness, 156 

" some of better effect, than others, 156 

*' divided into two classes, 158 

" first class, three divisions, 159 

** constant in plants, 91 

*' second class of, 166 

" quantity of, which may be used, • 169 

" two classes of, poisonous, 170 

" in cow dung, ISO 

" " " by Morin, 181 

" " " M. Penot, 182 

" in bushel of dung, 188 

" formed daily by one cow, 189 

'* formed yearly by one cow, 191 

** in horse dung, 204 

" in night soil, 205 

" in excrements of a hen, 214 

" in animal matter, 216 

*' annually evacuated by one person, 251 
" in urine, 243, 249 

" in mud and peat, 256 

" in rivers, at freshets, 283 

" in rain and snow, 280 

" intention of application of, 291 

Saltpetre, 166 

" action of, 269 

" alkali in, 269 

Sand improved by liming, 133 



^iiS INDEX. 






Section. 


Sand, composition of, 


13 


" action of muck on, 


289 


" best to restore, 


290 


" heaviest part of soil. 


292 


Sandstone, formation of, 


5 


Science, definition of, 


128 


" application to agriculture, 


128, 129 


Sea eagle, excrement of. 


212 


Serpentine, ingredients of. 


60 


Seeds, heat and cold borne by, 


26 


Sheep, urine of, 


247 


Silex, 


42, 48, 62, 69 


" formation of, 


48 


" quantity of, in rock. 


59 


" as an acid in simple minerals, 


59 


Silica, combining weight of. 


56 


" soluble, 


70 


Silicates, 40, 


, 41, 42, 45, 46, 76 


" decomposition of, 


76 


" action of, carbonic acid on. 


77, 131, 134, 285 


*' selected by plants. 


87 


" constant in plants. 


91 


" no action on each other. 


131 


*' of soil, stationary. 


132 


" of potash. 


165 


*' action of oxygen on. 


168 


'* of soda in spent ashes. 


273 


" unlimited fertility of, 


289 


" uniformity of, 


291 


" laws of combination of. 


56 


Silicon, 


43 


" action of, with oxygen, 


48 


" sulphuret of. 


65,83 


" properties of. 


67 


Silicic acid. 


69,71 


Siliciurets, 


49 


" action of air on, 


78 


Slate, 


5 


Skin of the sole of the foot, an analysis 


of, 218 


Snow, salts in. 


286 


Soil, 


10 


" only one. 


19 


" all primary, 


20 



INDEX. 229 







Section. 


Soil, 


, transportation of, 


30, 31 


(( 


chemical composition of, 


32,33 


tc 


analysis of, 


33 


(( 


bulk of, 


48 


(( 


elements in, 


40 


u 


unvarying, 


58 


(C 


decay of. 


76 


(C 


organic parts of. 


88,89 


(( 


inorganic " 


89 


C( 


" number of elements in. 


89 


n 


organic " " 


89 


(( 


inorganic, difference of, 


90 


{( 


carbonaceous. 


102 


(( 


not external to plants. 


140 


(( 


decomposed by plants, 


141, 147 


(( 


result of action of carbonates on, 


135 


(( 


sandy, best to restore, 


290 


(( 


physical properties of. 


291, 298 


({ 


" " characters of, 


291 


C( 


" " what dependent on. 


292 


(( 


" " relations of, 


292 


(( 


varieties of. 


292 


(( 


sand heaviest part of. 


292 


(( 


most important character of. 


293 


t( 


" " " determined by weight, 293 


11 


color and dryness important to. 


293 


(( 


relation to moisture and gases. 


294, 295 


(C 


fresh ploughed, evaporation of, 


295 


(C 


light, advantages of. 


295 


(( 


action of cold on. 


296 


(( 


electrical relations of. 


• 297 


(( 


chlorine in. 


298 


Soda, 


42 


(( 


silicate of, 


48 


t( 


" combining weight of. 


56 


(( 


may take the place of lime. 


96 


(( 


muriate of, action of, 


149 


Soot 


:, a powerful manure, 


225 


(( 


salts in. 


225 


C( 


analysis of. 


225 


(( 


nitrogen in. 


226 


(( 


capital liquid manure, 


226 


t( 


good results of, in England, 


226 



230 



INDEX. 







Section. 


Soot of anthracite coal, 




226 


Spent ley, 




170, 297 


" " salts of, 




230 


•" « alkali in. 




230 


" " two kinds of, ^ 




230 


" " first kind, analysis of, 




230, 233 


" " second " " 




231 


" " value of, 




232 


" " action of. 


236, 


237, 238 


" " - from soda soap, imitation of, 




238 


Spent ashes, composition of. 




273 


Starch, converted into sugar. 




137 


Stable manure, composition of, 




176 


Stearine, . ' 




227 


Stearic acid. 




227 


Stinchecombe farm, 




226 


Sulphur, 




43 


" equivalent of, 




57 


Sulphates, 




52, 170 


Sulphurets, 




49 


" action of air on, 




78 


Sulphuric acid, formation of. 




57 


" " equivalent of, 




57 


Sulpho-henzoic acid. 


(p. 84) 


Super geates. 




120, 124 


Swamp mud. 




254 


Sugar, action of weak acid on. 


(p. 77) 


T 






Talc, ingredients of. 




60 


Temperature, effects of. 




26 


Theories, the evils of, 




146 


Turf, 




257 


u 






Ulmin, composition of, 


(p. 78) 


(( 


(P 


74) 


*' production of. 


(P 


76) 


*' relation to ulmic acid. 


(P 


75) 


" first called geine. 


(P 


77) 


Ulmic acid. 


(P 


74) 


" " formation of. 


(p. 77) 


" " composition of. 


(p. 82) - 


Urea, formation of, 


139, 


240, 242 



INDEX. 231 

Section. 

Urea, properties of, 241 

" composition of, 242 

Urets, definition of, 40, 50 

" number of, 43, 45, 58 

" characters of, 65 
" different prop'ns of combination with oxygen, 66 

" action of air and moisture on, 78 

" continually becoming salts, 79 

" selected by plants, 87 

Uric acid, 243 

" " composition of, 243 

Urine of cow, composition of, 243 

" of one cow, annually, 244 

" salts in, 245, 246 

" effects of watering with, 246 

" of horse, analysis of, 247 

" " value of, 247 

" human, " ' 248 

" " analysis of, 248 
" " compared with horse and cow, 248, 249 

*' varies with food, 250 

" action of putrefaction on, 259 

" mixed with peat, 277, 278 

" of hog, analysis of, , 247 

" sheep, 247 

V 

Vegetable mould, 113, 114 

" " inorganic elements of, 115 

" " brown powder of, 115 
" " " " properties of, 116 

Vegetable products, two classes of, 220 

Vinegar, properties of, 246 

" action on pearlash, 246, 247 

Vital principle, 171 

Volcanoes, cause of, 6 

" products of, 12 

w 

Water, elements of, 40 

" composition of, 62, 55 

" in plants, 167 

" pure, action of, on land, 280 

« " air in, 2S0 



232 INDEX. 

" " with air expelled, 

Wheat, limits of, 

" conditions necessary for, 
*' temperature of germination, 
" straw ashes, analysis of. 
Wood, hard, ashes, analysis of. 
Woodland, evaporation of, 
Wool, analysis of, 

** natural soap of, for manure, 
" " " 35 to 40 per cent, of, 

" " " used in France, 

Woollen rags, powerful manure, 

" " stronger than cow dung, 



CORRECTIONS. 

Page 99, seventh line from top, afterword "plant," 
read '■Hcants not, they act." 

" 108, fourth line from top, after "ammonia," read 

" but." 
" " fifth line from top, for " to be," read, " is." 
" 121, third line from top, for " 17," read, "71." 
" 142, read the 11th line, between the 8th and 9th. 



% 



At a meeting of the Board of Trustees of the Massa- 
chusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, held 9tb 
July, 1842 :— 

Voted, That Mr. Phinney be a committee, to ascertain 
the price of Dr. Dana's treatise on Manures, and report 
his opinion of the expediency, and the best mode of dis- 
tributing this work for the interests of Agriculture. 

At a subsequent meeting of the Trustees, on the 10th 
September, 1842, Mr. Phinney made a verbal report, com- 
mendatory of Dr. Dana's treatise, and it was — 

Voted, That the Treasurer be authorized to purchase 
one hundred copies of Dr. Dana's treatise on Manures, 
for immediate distribution ; and that Mr. Phinney, with 
the Secretary, be requested to take charge of the books, 
and of their distribution. 

A copy from the records. 

BENJAMIN GUILD, 
Ast'nt Rec. Sec'y, of Mass. Soc. for Prom'g Agr. 






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